LIBRARY  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


330.973 
PI  9  c 
no. 1-10 


The  person  charging  this  material  is  re¬ 
sponsible  for  its  return  to  the  library  from 
which  it  was  withdrawn  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books  are  reasons 
for  disciplinary  action  and  may  result  in  dismissal  from 
the  University. 

To  renew  call  Telephone  Center,  333-8400 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 

m  2  5  \9®l 

HP 

Retur 

i  of  renew  ai‘  Library 

"Mb'. 

tci  each  Lost  i 

wk  is  $50.00 

JAM  2  4  i 

MAR  1  ?  1! 

m 

L161— 0-1096 

Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/pamphletsonconseOOunse 


33<VH73 

Piqc_ 

^■o ,  \ . 


63d  Congress  \ 
1st  Session  / 


SENATE 


/  Document 
\  No.  243 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL 

RESOURCES 


AN  ARTICLE 

ON  THE  WASTE  OF  OUR  NATURAL  RESOURCES 
DUE  TO  THE  NONDEVELOPMENT  OF 
OUR  WATER  POWERS 


BY 


W.  V.  N.  POWELSON 


ft 


PRESENTED  BY^MR.  SHAFROTH 
November  26,  19 '3. — Ordered  to  be  printed 


WASHINGTON 

1913 


rfom  me  ;  i  o  r a  k ij  or 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 
OCKERSON 

CLASS  Of  1  ft  7  3 
Presented  j\\aii  1,1024 
bti  his  Widow  CL  AKA 
vSHACKEIFORD  OCKtRAON 


330,97$ 
Fl9c 
Ho.  I 


« 

\ 

t 


engineering  library 


33fr  / 73 

7,<J-  I" 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


A  MEASURE  OF  THE  WASTE  OF  OUR  NATURAL  RESOURCES  DUE  TO 
THE  NONDEVELOPMENT  OF  OUR  WATER  POWERS.  A  PLEA  FOR 
LEGISLATION  TO  PROMOTE  THE  PUBLIC  WELFARE. 


By  W.  V.  N.  Powelson. 


To  assist  the  friends  of  conservation  to  appreciate  the  character 
and  to  measure  the  extent  of  the  waste  of  our  natural  resources 
involved  in  the  continuance  of  water-power  sites  in  an  undeveloped 
state  is  the  principal  object  of  this  paper. 

I  have  chosen  this  phase  of  the  problem  because  I  believe  the  time 
has  come  when,  to  preserve  our  character  as  friends  of  conservation, 
we  must  bring  about  the  prompt  development  of  those  water-power 
sites  for  which  a  market  exists  or  can  now  be  created. 

Heretofore,  because  of  our  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  subject,  it  did 
not  seem  good  strategy  in  the  fight  for  control  of  tfc  water-power 
sites  in  the  public  interest  to  move  quickly  toward  thei  evelopment. 
We  needed  time  for  study,  reflection,  and  counsel.  T  seemed  im¬ 
perative  and  sufficient  that  we  emplo}^  all  our  resourc  5  to  prevent 
private  parties  from  acquiring  the  sites  belonging  to  th^  public  until 
a  wise  and  constructive  legislative  plan  for  develop  nt  could  be 
devised. 

We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  true  conservation  of  our 
natural  resources  requires  that  our  water-power  sites  be  promptly 
developed,  and  it  is  incumbent  on  us  as  a  people  to  bring  this  about 
at  the  earliest  practicable  moment.  While  true  conservation  requires 
that  the  sites  be  promptly  developed,  true  statesmanship  requires 
that  the  development  shall  be  made 'in  harmony  with  the  public 
interest. 

A  little  reflection  will  show  that  it  is  possible  that  the  evil  of  non¬ 
development,  if  continued  long  enough,  may  exceed  the  evil  of  unwise 
development. 

The  true  interest  of  the  public  lies  now  between  these  two  extremes. 
We  can  not  remain  in. our  present  situation  with  a  practical  embargo 
on  the  development  of  sites  now  controlled  by  the  Government  with¬ 
out  important  losses ;  nor  can  we  without  danger  permit  the  develop^ 
ment  of  these  sites  unless  we  retain  an  efficient  governmental  contror 
over  them  after  development. 

As  illustrating  the  extent  of  the  Federal  control  of  watl^oower 
sites,  I  may  say  that  it  extends  to  every  stream  declared  navigable, 
and  to  all  sites  on  lands  yet  owned  in  fee  by  the  Government.  That 
the  amount  of  such  land,  particularly  in  mountainous  sections,  where 
the  best  sites  are  as  a  rule  found,  is  enormous  is  shown  by  the  data 


4 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


of  the  following  table,  which  indicates  certain  States  in  which  the 
area  of  Federal  land  exceeds  50  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the 
States,  and  it  is  in  these  States  and  on  these  lands  that  the  principal 
undeveloped  water  powers  of  the  country  are  to  be  found. 


Table  showing  approximately  the  percentage  of  the  area  of  the  arid  States 

owned  by  the  Federal  Government. 


State. 

Total 
acreage 
owned  by 
United 
States. 

Percentage 
of  total. 

Arizona . 

67,097,293 

92  00 

California . 

53;  276^  547 
37, 702, 033 

52. 58 

Colorado . 

56.67 

Idaho . 

45;  218',  919 
61,049,263 
62,219,423 
49,315,409 
32, 229, 745 
4.3  56 1  645 

83.80 

Montana . 

65  80 

Nevada . 

87.82 

N ew  Mexico . 

62.  S3 

Oregon . 

51.90 

80. 18 
40.00 

Washington . 

17, 684, 198 
42,613,499 

Wyoming . 

68.00 

Up  to  this  time  it  has  seemed  the  part  of  wisdom  to  counsel  delay 
in  dealing  with  a  matter  so  important  and  so  intricate.  So  far  it 
has  seemed  the  part  of  good  strategy  to  throw  away  one  thing  of 
value  to  gain  another  which  promised  to  be  of  greater  value.  But 
the  process  of  throwing  away  the  thing  of  value  is  still  going  on.  and 
every  day  adds  to  its  sum  total. 

We  must  not  continue  to  throw  away  until  we  exceed  the  value  of 
the  thing  we  are  striving  for. 

We  have  had  ample  opportunity  during  the  past  three  years  for 
reflection,  study,  and  the  preparation  of  our  plans,  and  the  people 
are  now  looking  to  the  leaders  of  the  conservation  movement  to  come 
forward  with  a  practical  scheme  of  legislation  that  will  bring  about 
the  speedy  development  of  needed  powers  under  an  efficient  public 
control  and  thus  definitely  put  a  stop  to  the  enormous  waste  involved 
in  the  nondevelopment  of  these  powers. 

Through  the  efforts  mainly  of  Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot.  the  public  has 
been  thoroughly  aroused  and  public  opinion  has  been  educated  to  the 
great  importance  of  a  correct  solution  of  the  problem. 

Through  his  efforts  all  sensible  men  have  come  to  recognize  that 
there  must  be  an  efficient  governmental  control  over  these  sites  after 
development.  There  still  exist  differences  of  opinion  as  to  details 
of  this  control,  but  I  believe  that  there  is  now  no  dissent  in  any 
responsible  quarter  to  the  general  principle  involved. 

It  is  most  unfortunate  that  where  there  is  a  substantial  agreement 
on  the  fundamental  principles  involved  there  should  continue  to  be 
an  almost  complete  tie-up  of  the  Federal  controlled  water-power 
sites  merely  because  there  exist  these  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
details.  The  public  interest  requires  that  these  differences  be  com¬ 
posed  without  further  delay.  What  these  differences  seem  to  me  to 
be  I  will  describe  later,  after  having  first  pointed  out  the  tremendous 
waste  of  our  natural  resources  involved  in  the  continuance  of  econom¬ 
ically  available  water-power  sites  in  an  undeveloped  state. 

It  may  seem  a  bit  paradoxical,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  the 
same  amount  of  work  is  being  done  at  a  water-power  site  whether  it 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


5 


is  undeveloped  or  developed.  In  the  one  case  the  work  is  mainly 
expended  in  agitating  the  water;  in  the  other,  in  serving  useful  pur¬ 
poses.  All  over  the  country,  wherever  water  runs,  work  is  being  per¬ 
formed,  but  at  only  comparatively  few  such  places  is  this  work  being 
turned  to  useful  purposes.  While  we  are  arguing  about  the  details 
of  a  conceded  public  control,  vast  quantities  of  work  are  being  thrown 
away  which  we  might  have  in  useful  form  for  the  harnessing.  Once 
properly  harnessed  the  work  will  have  been  permanently  changed 
into  a  useful  form,  and  it  then  becomes  a  national  asset  of  great  value, 
which  will  forever  provide  useful  employment  for  men. 

Every  undeveloped  water-power  site  for  which  a  market  exists,  or 
could  now  be  created,  is  a  willful  waste  of  a  natural  resource.  If  we 
do  not  make  present  use  of  the  falling  water  of  a  stream,  the  useful 
work  it  is  capable  of  doing  is  lost  forever,  and  there  is  a  waste  of 
a  natural  resource.  If j  however,  we  do  not  make  present  use  of  coal 
in  the  ground,  it  will  remain  there  in  undiminished  quantity  and 
quality,  and  we  can  at  any  future  time  convert  it  into  useful  work, 
and  there  is  no  waste  of  a  natural  resource. 

It  is  just  as  wasteful  of  our  natural  resources  to  burn  coal  to  do 
work  that  could  as  well  be  done  by  an  undeveloped  water  power  as 
it  would  be  to  permit  an  equal  amount  of  coal  to  burn  up  under¬ 
ground.  We  see,  therefore,  that  upon  the  sum  total  of  our  power 
resources  the  effect  of  an  undeveloped  water  power  in  a  locality  where 
it  could  do  work  now  being  performed  by  coal  is  precisely  as  de¬ 
structive  in  character  as  a  coal  deposit  burning  underground. 

Suppose  that  all  over  the  country  to-morrow  there  should  break 
out  in  our  underground  coal  deposits  destructive  fires  whereby  tens 
of  thousands  of  tons  of  coal  per  day  were  being  destroyed.  How 
long  would  the  people  sit  by  and  see  this  wasteful  destruction  con¬ 
tinue?  Would  not  the  cry  go  up  all  over  the  country  that  our  natural 
resources  were  being  needlessly  consumed?  Would  not  pictures  be 
painted  of  the  woeful  condition  of  our  country  at  the  time  our  coal 
fields  began  to  show  signs  of  coming  exhaustion?  Would  it  not  be 
pointed  out  that  our  present  standards  of  living,  nay,  our  very  form  of 
civilization,  is  the  result  of  an  enormous  daily  supply  of  coal  at  very 
low  prices?  Would  not  the  Government  itself  step  in  and  put  out 
those  fires  if  they  could  not  be  extinguished  by  private  effort?  But 
how  different  it  is  when  an  equally  large  and  wasteful  destruction  of 
our  natural  resources  for  power  occurs  through  the  nondevelopment 
of  water-power  sites  that  could  do  the  work  now  performed  by  the 
daily  burning  of  enormous  volumes  of  coal  above  ground.  There  is 
no  outcry  from  the  people  at  these  conditions.  The  water-power  sites 
give  out  no  distressing  signs.  No  sulphurous  fumes  warn  against 
this  continuous  and  relentless  destruction  and  waste  of  our  natural 
resources.  On  the  contrary,  these  undeveloped  sites  charm  the  eye 
and  please  the  ear,  and  convey  no  idea  of  the  destructive  waste  of 
power  that  is  continually  going  on  at  them. 

By  a  strange  fatality  many  people  have  jumped  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  is  a  conservation  of  our  natural  resources  to  keep  our  water¬ 
power  sites  in  their  natural  condition. 

Because  such  a  policy  if  applied  to  a  coal  field  would  be  a  policy 
of  conservation,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  retains  this  character  when 
applied  to  water-power  sites.  In  fact,  quite  the  contrary  is  true.  A 
policy  which  in  its  practical  effect  results  in  nondevelopment  of  our 


6 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


water-power  sites  is  not  a  policy  of  conservation  at  all,  and  its  con¬ 
tinuance  can  only  be  justified  by  a  clear  demonstration  that  the  evil 
of  this  policy  is  less  than  the  evil  of  any  other  policy  that  could  be 
substituted  for  it. 

Mr.  Herbert  Knox  Smith  has  admirably  brought  out  the  idea  of 
the  inherent  waste  is  an  undeveloped  water  power,  and  I  can  not  do 
better  than  to  quote  in  its  entirety  section  2,  on  page  202  of  his  report, 
entitled  “  Water  power  development  in  the  United  States,  as 
follows : 

Water  power  is  unlike  most  other  natural  resources  in  that  it  is  not  dimin¬ 
ished  by  use,  nor  is  it  conserved  by  nonuse.  Coal  which  is  not  used  to-day 
remains  to  be  used  hereafter,  but  the  energy  of  water  which  is  allowed  to  flow 
by  unused  neither  increases  or  diminishes  the  future  supply,  but  it  is  irre¬ 
trievably  lost.  Our  supply  of  coal — the  principal  source  of  energy — while  vast, 
is  not  unlimited.  The  utilization  of  water  power  results  in  the  saving  of  coal 
for  future  use.  In  other  words,  the  real  waste  of  Water  power  is  its  nonuse, 
while  its  development  effects  a  conservation,  not  only  of  water  power,  but  of 
our  fuel  supply  as  well. 

The  importance  of  effectively  utilizing  the  water  powers  of  the  country  is 
therefore  obvious.  The  power  now  (February,  1912)  required  to  operate  the 
industrial  enterprises  and  public-service  utilities  of  the  country  (excluding 
steam  railroads  and  vessels)  can  be  safely  estimated  at  not  less  than  30.000.000 
horsepower.  Approximately  6.000.000  horsepower  is  now  generated  by  water; 
the  rest  is  generated  from  fuel,  mainly  coal.  The  quantity  of  coal  required  to 
produce  a  horsepower  hour  in  steam  varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the  coal 
and  the  size  and  efficiency  of  the  engines.  It  is  claimed  that  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  a  pound  of  coal  can  be  made  to  produce  one  horsepower 
hour.  From  this  minimum  the  estimated  quantity  ranges  as  high  as  even  6 
or  7  pounds.  Assuming,  however,  that  on  the  average  a  horsepower  hour  in 
steam  can  be  produced  by  3  pounds  of  coal  (and  this  quantity  probably  under¬ 
states  the  average  quantity  of  coal  required  and  the  corresponding  saving 
by  the  substitution  of  water  power)  the  power  now  produced  by  water  saves  at 
least  33.000.000  tons  of  coal  per  vear.  This  is  based  on  a  12-liour  day. 

By  reason  of  distance  from  markets,  cost  of  development,  and  other  causes, 
it  will  doubtless  be  many  years  before  a  quantity  equal  to  even  the  “  minimum 
potential  ”  water  power  of  the  country.  32.083,000  horsepower,  can  be  advan¬ 
tageously  developed.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  under  favorable  conditions 
several  additional  millions  of  horsepower  can  now  profitably  be  developed  from 
water,  thus  effecting  a  still  further  conservation  of  our  fuel.  The  millions  of 
water  power  economically  available,  but  undeveloped,  represent  absolute  waste. 

In  brief,  the  real  conservation  of  water  power  is  its  use.  So  much  of  this 
natural  resource,  therefore,  as  can  advantageously  be  used  should  have  prompt 
and  complete  development:  but  in  doing  this  certain  important  economic  forces 
are  called  into  action,  and  the  effect  of  these  forces  upon  the  public  welfare 
must  be  fully  recognized  and  the  public  interests  safeguarded. 

With  these  sentiments  so  admirably  expressed  by  Mr.  Smith,  I 
am  confident  all  who  have  investigated  the  subject  are  in  accord. 

This  extract  from  Mr.  Smith's  report  indicates  that  for  each 
horsepower  economically  available  for  development  there  is  now 
being  substituted  and  burned  51-  tons  of  coal  per  year.  This  is  based 
on  a  12-hour  day.  This  represents,  as  he  says,  “absolute  waste 
at  $2  per  ton  this  is  equivalent  to  a  waste  at  the  rate  of  $11  per  year 
for  each  undeveloped  horsepower  now  economically  available  for 
development. 

Mr.  Smith  states  that  there  are  several  million  of  horsepower 
undeveloped  that  can  now  be  profitably  developed.  Assuming  that 
by  several  millions  he  had  in  mind,  say,  5,000.000  horsepower, 
then  the  nondevelopment  of  this  power  represents  an  absolute  waste 
to-day  at  the  rate  of  27.500.000  tons  of  coal  per  annum. 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


7 


In  the  words  of  Mr.  Smith,  “  these  millions  of  water  power  eco¬ 
nomically  available,  but  undeveloped,  represent  absolute  waste.”  If 
the  entire  32,000,000  minimum  potential  horsepower,  as  estimated 
by  Mr.  Smith,  were  developed,  the  total  saving  of  coal  would  be 
about  175,000,000  tons  per  annum.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  know 
that  our  present  consumption  of  coal  for  all  purposes  is  about 
500,000,000  tons  per  annum,  of  which  about  90  per  cent  is  for  indus¬ 
trial  purposes. 

Does  not  the  possibility  here  presented  of  increasing  the  saving 
from  27,500,000  tons  per  annum  to  as  near  175,000,000  tons  as  prac¬ 
ticable  present  a  field  for  fruitful  endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment?  Does  not  the  possibility  of  so  tremendous  a  saving  of  our 
natural  resources  suggest  that  the  attitude  of  the  Government  should 
be  at  least  sympathetic  and  not  repressive  ?  Does  it  not  even  suggest 
that  the  public  welfare  may  soon  require  the  principle  of  a  bounty 
to  encourage  the  development  of  its  powers?  These  will  be  found 
fruitful  subjects  for  reflection. 

Returning  now  to  the  estimated  present  waste  of  27,500,000  tons 
of  coal  per  annum,  as  based  on  Mr.  Smith’s  data,  what  does  this 
annual  waste  amount  to  in  value?  The  average  price  of  coal  is  prob¬ 
ably  in  excess  of  $2  a  ton,  so  that  a  measure  of  the  present  value  of 
this  waste  would  probably  exceed  $55,000,000  per  annum.  However, 
there  is  some  question  as  to  whether  we  should  treat  this  27,500,000 
tons  of  coal  per  annum  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  present  value, 
or  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  value  at  the  time  when  the  reserve, 
of  which  this  27,500,000  tons  would  form  a  part,  would  be  required 
for  use.  It  would  seem  reasonable  that  the  smallest  value  that  could 
possibly  be  put  upon  it  would  be  its  present  value,  and  therefore  it 
would  appear  that  we  as  a  nation  are  losing  at  least  $55,000,000  per 
annum  as  the  result  of  the  nondevelopment  of  5,000,000  water  horse¬ 
power  economically  available  at  the  present  time,  or  at  the  rate  of 
$11  per  horsepower  per  year.  However,  as  conservationists,  I  think 
we  are  bound  to  give  some  consideration  to  the  value  of  the  coal  in 
the  ground  at  the  future  time  when  this  reserve  will  be  needed.  At 
that  time  it  will  not  be  so  much  a  question  of  dollars  and  cents  as 
it  will  be  a  question  of  keeping  the  human  race  warm,  for  presumably 
long  before  that  time  the  coal  resources  will  have  been  husbanded 
and  held  almost  exclusively  for  this  purpose.  Coal  possesses  a  tre¬ 
mendous  value  for  heating,  which  water  powers  do  not,  and  there  is 
a  very  important  question  of  economics  involved,  which  I  shall  not 
treat  further  here  than  to  mention  that  whenever  coal  is  used  to  do 
work  that  water  power  can  do  we  are  employing  an  agent  of  a  very 
high  order  to  do  the  work  of  an  inferior  agent.  The  question  of  the 
full  and  true  value  to  be  placed  upon  coal  which  we  could  save  by 
the  development  of  water  powers  is  too  intricate  for  treatment  here. 

As  against  these  tremendous  losses  to  the  Nation,  due  solely  to 
delay,  what  have  we  gained  bv  the  delay?  What  did  we  hope  to 
gain  by  delay?  I  can  not  better  state  what  we  hoped  to  gain  than  by 
adopting  the  words  of  Mr.  Herbert  Knox  Smith  from  the  report 
referred  to,  as  follows: 

If  the  public  permits  private  parties  to  develop  and  operate  its  water  powers, 
it  can  charge  rental  for  that  right,  which  will  go  into  the  Public  Treasury. 
It  is  only  through  some  such  reservation  and  through  the  operation  of  the  one 


8 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


agency  that  represents  the  public,  namely,  the  Government,  whether  State  or 
Federal,  that  the  advantages  inherent  in  water  powers  can  be  reserved  and 
distributed  to  the  community  as  a  whole.  This  consideration  must  therefore 
primarily  dominate  the  water-power  policy. 

This  is  what  we  sought  to  gain.  Now  what  have  we  actually 
gained  by  the  delay? 

We  have  caused  to  be  universally  accepted  the  principle  of  an 
efficient  governmental  control,  and  we  have  preserved  to  the  Federal 
.Government  the  potential  opportunity  to  collect  a  rental  for  the  use 
of  its  water-power  sites. 

I  use  the  word  “  potential  ”  because  if  the  rental  fixed  is  more  than 
the  traffic  will  bear  at  a  particular  site  the  development  will  not  be 
made  and  no  rental  will  be  collected  from  it. 

The  most  important  and  the  important  thing  we  have  gained  is 
universal  recognition  of  the  principle  of  an  efficient  governmental 
control. 

It  is  probably  not  of  vital  consequence  to  the  public  welfare 
whether  this  control  be  exercised  by  representatives  of  the  Federal  or 
the  State  Government.  The  important  thing  is  that  the  control 
should  be  efficient  and  fair  and  in  harmony  with  the  public  welfare. 

Of  far  less  consequence,  to  my  mind,  is  the  preservation  to  the 
Federal  Government  of  the  “  potential  ”  opportunity  to  collect  a 
rental  from  a  site  for  the  benefit  of  the  Public  Treasury,  because  I 
doubt  the  expediency  of  an  attempt  in  this  form  to  distribute  to  the 
people  their  fair  share  of  the  values  flowing  from  the  development  of 
their  sites. 

Water  powers,  like  city  real  estate,  exhibit  enormous  differences  in 
earning  capacity.  Many  water  powers  have  little  or  no  commercial 
earning  capacity  in  competition  with  coal.  It  would  require  in 
many  cases  a  bounty  to  bring  about  their  development.  If  we  charge 
a  rental  on  all  water-power  sites  at  a  uniform  rate  per  horsepower 
of  available  capacity,  only  those  sites  will  be  developed  that  can  stand 
the  rental.  Other  sites  that  might  have  been  developed  under  a 
smaller  rental  or  under  no  rental  at  all  will  lie  idle  and  valuable 
supplies  of  coal  will  be  consumed  to  do  their  work.  Is  it  not  true 
that  what  we  might  collect  for  the  people  as  a  rental  from  a  dozen 
developed  water  powers  could  easily  be  lost  to  the  Nation  from  the 
waste  involved  in  a  single  undeveloped  power  whose  development 
was  prevented  by  the  rental  policy? 

We  have  seen  that  at  $2  per  ton  for  coal  the  waste,  according  to 
the  data  of  Mr.  Herbert  Knox  Smith,  is  $11  per  horsepower  year 
for  each  of  several  million  horsepower  that  are  now  economically 
available  for  development,  a  total  annual  loss  of  around  $55,000,000. 

How  can  the  Nation  recoup  such  a  loss  by  collecting  “  for  the 
community  as  a  whole  ”  a  rental  from  the  sites,  and  if  it  could,  how 
great  per  horsepower  year  would  the  rental  have  to  be  to  recoup  so 
great  a  loss;  and  would  this  rental  be  within  what  the  traffic  would 
bear  ? 

Fundamentally  the  question  of  a  rental  collected  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Public  Treasury  is  not  a  question  of  conservation  at  all.  It 
is  a  social  question  contemplating  an  equitable  division  of  potential 
profits,  essentially  the  same  as  other  social  questions  that  have  been 
correctly  solved  by  governmental  supervision  and  control  of  the 
service  contracts  and  profits  of  public-service  corporations.  No  new 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


9 


form  of  wealth  is  created  by  the  imposition  and  collection  of  such  a 
rental  or  tax,  and  therefore  each  year  we  permit  coal  to  be  used  to 
do  work  that  can  as  economically  be  performed  by  water  power  wre, 
as  a  nation,  are  being  impoverished  by  the  value  of  the  coal  so  used, 
now  estimated  at  about  $55,000,000  per  annum. 

The  Nation  can  not  as  a  whole  be  injured  without  its  effect  being 
felt  by  every  class  of  which  it  is  composed,  so  that  even  if  we  were 
to  view  this  question  not  from  the  broad  standpoint  of  the  Nation 
itself  but  from  the  narrower  viewpoint  of  that  class  which  is  most 
numerous  in  the  Nation,  the  conviction  must  still  be  forced  upon  us 
that  if  the  Nation  itself  continues  to  be  impoverished  the  aggregate 
injur}7  to  this  class  may  thereby  be  caused  to  exceed  any  possible 
advantage  to  it  from  the  “potential”  opportunity  of  the  Federal 
Government  to  collect  for  the  “  community  as  a  whole  ”  a  rental  <  n 
water-power  sites. 

If  the  purpose  of  the  rental  is  to  secure  to  the  people  as  a  whole 
all  the  profit  from  the  development  after  capital  has  had  its  fair 
return,  the  rental  policy,  in  my  judgment,  will  not  accomplish  this 
purpose  if  it  is  fixed  uniformly  at  so  much  per  horsepower  of  avail¬ 
able  capacity  at  the  site,  as  has  been  suggested. 

While  I  am  in  entire  sympathy  with  the  purpose  of  the  rental 
charge,  I  must  confess  that,  in  my  opinion,  unless  it  be  based  in  each 
particular  case  either  on  actual  profits  earned  or  on  an  agreed  esti¬ 
mate  of  prospective  profits  prepared  in  each  particular  case  as  the 
result  of  a  most  skillful  and  exhaustive  investigation,  the  rental 
policy,  if  applied  generally,  may  do  much  more  harm  to  the  public 
welfare  than  good.  But  in  suggesting  that  the  rental  policy  may 
be  impracticable,  I  am  not  suggesting  any  abandonment  of  the  pur¬ 
poses  for  which  that  policy  was  suggested.  Excessive  profits,  if 
earned,  must  be  returned  to  the  people,  but  it  appears  to  me  funda¬ 
mental  that  an  excessive  profit  must  have  been  actually  earned 
before  a  division  is  due,  and  the  extent  of  the  division  must  be  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  amount  of  the  profit. 

A  remedy  that  will  prevent  excessive  profits  without  retarding 
development  must,  it  seems  to  me,  be  based  either  on  a  policy  of  price 
regulation  by  Government  or  of  profit  sharing  with  Government.  If 
there  can  be  no  regulation  of  price  below  the  competitive  price  of 
coal-produced  power  without  unfair  discrimination  against  those 
consumers  of  power  who  are  not  fortunate  enough  to  be  consumers  of 
water  power,  then  excessive  profits  should  probably  be  distributed  to 
the  people  through  a  sharing  of  profit  with  Government. 

But  what  is  the  measure  of  this  share  of  the  profit  which  it  has 
been  sought  to  secure  to  the  people  by  a  rental  system?  How  much 
has  it  been  suggested  should  be  collected  annually  for  the  people  from 
the  5,000,000  economically  available  horsepower  now  going  to  waste? 
How  does  the  potential  value  of  it  as  a  gain  compare  with  the  actual 
loss  to  the  Nation  for  the  three  years  that  it  has  been  going  on  and  is 
still  going  on  because  of  enforced  nondevelopment  ? 

I  may  be  pardoned  if  I  take  this  opportunity  to  say  parenthetically 
that  in  suggesting  that  we  now  compare  our  actual  losses  through 
delay  with  the  expected  benefits  to  flow  from  wise  legislation  I  do  not 
mean  to  imply  any  criticism  of  the  policy  of  nondevelopment  pending 
investigation  of  the  questions  involved. 


10 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


It  is  often  said  that  a  person’s  hindsight  is  better  than  his  fore¬ 
sight,  and  if  the  opportunity  to  do  a  complicated  thing  over  again 
should  be  presented  there  are  few  of  us  who  would  not  do  some  things 
differently.  A  thing  is  always  wisely  done  regardless  of  consequences 
if  in  the  light  of  knowledge  available  at  the  time  it  was  the  logical 
thing  to  do,  and  I  think  to  halt  until  we  could  get  our  bearings  was 
the  logical  thing  to  do. 

I  admire  the  courage  of  the  men  who  have  prevented  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  our  water-power  sites,  their  patriotism,  their  high  purpose.  I 
am  not  one  of  those  who  would  impugn  the  motives  of  these  men  if 
they  should  now  insist  that  these  sites  be  continued  a  while  longer  in 
their  natural  condition.  I  would  understand  that  they  believed  this 
policy  necessary  to  the  public  welfare,  but  I  would  question  their 
judgment. 

I  do  not  remember  having  heard  it  suggested  in  any  quarter  that 
the  proposed  rental  should  exceed  around  $1  per  year  per  horsepower 
of  site  capacity,  and  the  fear  has  been  expressed  in  some  quarters  that 
a  charge  exceeding  50  cents  per  horsepower  might  retard,  if  not  pre¬ 
vent,  the  development  of  many  otherwise  economically  available 
powers. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  here  while  considering  the  amount 
of  the  rental  that  water  powers  may  be  divided  into  three  general 
classes.  First,  those  capable  of  producing  power  considerably  cheaper 
than  by  coal.  The  number  of  powers  in  this  class  is  not  very  great. 
In  the  second  class  the  saving  over  coal  is  small,  and  the  margin  of 
saving  may  be  so  small  that  mistakes  in  the  estimate  of  cost  or  unusu¬ 
ally  adverse  conditions  during  construction  might  easily  make  the 
difference  between  a  success  and  a  failure  of  the  enterprise.  In  this 
class  there  are  a  very  large  number  of  powers.  But  the  largest  class 
of  all  consists  of  those  powers  that  are  not  now  economically  available 
as  competitors  of  coal. 

Assuming  that  the  traffic  would  bear  an  annual  rental  of  $1  per 
horsepower  of  site  capacity  for  the  several  million  horsepower  now, 
in  the  judgment  of  Mr.  Herbert  Knox  Smith,  economically  available, 
then  the  largest  sum  which  it  has  been  suggested  we  gather  into  the 
Public  Treasury  from  every  undeveloped  water  power  in  the  country, 
now  economically  available,  is  but  $5,000,000  per  annum,  if  by  several 
million  horsepower  Mr.  Smith  means  5,000.000  horsepower.  Let  us 
assume  for  the  purposes  of  discussion  that  the  imposition  of  this 
rental  or  tax  does  create  new  wealth  for  the  Nation  to  the  extent  col¬ 
lected.  How  does  this  potential  gain  compensate  for  our  losses,  actual 
in  the  past  and  present,  prospective  in  the  future? 

The  losses  which  we  are  now  suffering  through  waste  of  our  natural 
resources — estimated  at  $55,000,000  per  annum,  or  $11  per  horsepower 
per  annum — is  the  equivalent  at  5  per  cent  of  an  annual  sum  in  per¬ 
petuity  equal  to  55  cents  per  horsepower  per  annum  on  the  whole 
5.000.000  of  economically  available  horsepower. 

A  delay  of  two  years,  therefore,  represents  a  loss  equivalent  to 
an  annual  sum  in  perpetuity  of  more  than  $1  per  horsepower  on  the 
whole  5.000,000  horsepower.  A  delay  of  three  years,  which  I  think  it 
may  be  conceded  we  have  experienced,  has  probably  cost  us  the 
equivalent  of  a  sum  in  perpetuity  at  the  rate  of  $1.50  per  year  per 
horsepower  on  the  whole  5,000,000  undeveloped  horsepower. 

A  superficial  view  of  the  question  might  suggest  that  the  country 
could  recoup  these  past  losses  by  charging  a  rental  of  $1.50  per  horse- 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


11 


power  per  year  and  make  a  profit  by  charging  a  higher  rental,  but 
no  country  can  enrich  itself  or  recoup  past  losses  by  a  tax,  because 
a  tax  merely  changes  the  ownership  of  a  part  of  the  wealth  of  the 
Nation.  We  can  never  recoup  for  the  Nation  the  losses  that  have 
already  been  incurred,  and  it  is  our  imperative  duty  to  bend  all  our 
efforts  to  stop  further  waste. 

I  think  it  should  be  conceded  that  there  would  be  considerable 
competition  between  the  different  groups  skilled  in  water-power  de¬ 
velopment  in  this  country  and  abroad  if  the  opportunity  were  offered 
to  develop  those  sites  now  controlled  by  the  Federal  Government 
and  that  are  economically  available,  and  therefore  it  seems  to  me  the 
part  of  wisdom  for  those  having  the  public  welfare  at  heart  to  ascer¬ 
tain  at  the  earliest  practicable  moment  the  terms,  the  best  under 
which  responsible  capital  will  come  forward  in  competition  to  develop 
our  powers,  and,  unless  the  acceptance  of  these  terms  will  be  more 
harmful  to  the  public  welfare  than  the  continuance  of  our  water 
powers  in  an  undeveloped  state,  these  terms  should  be  accepted,  and 
all  parties  should  join  in  securing  the  legislation  necessary  to  bring 
about*the  developments  forthwith. 

So  far  as  I  know,  investors  are  not  dissatisfied  with  the  attitude 
toward  capital  as  far  as  it  pertains  to  the  rate  of  return. 

I  have  not  heard  it  stated  anywhere  that  anyone  is  opposed  to 
investors  receiving  a  fair,  even  a  liberal,  return  on  their  money  de¬ 
voted  to  water-power  development.  The  leaders  of  the  conservation 
movement  have  always  recognized  that  capital  was  entitled  to  a  fair, 
and,  indeed,  a  liberal  return,  and  I  can  not  state  their  position  more 
concisely  than  to  quote  from  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot 
before  the  National  Waterways  Commission  in  1911,  as  follows: 

I  should  like  to  be  understood  as  asserting  with  a  good  deal  of  vigor  that  I 
believe  investors  who  go  into  water-power  development  should  be  given  a  much 
more  generous  return  on  their  investment  than  men  who  go  into  a  less  hazardous 
business,  for  the  risks  of  a  business  of  that  kind  are  certainly  very  large.  The 
public  needs  the  development  of  -water  powers. 

I  can  say,  for  instance,  that  it  is  wholly  impossible  to  expect  general  water¬ 
power  development  under  present  conditions  on  a  6  per  cent  basis.  The  risks 
are  too  large.  Ten  per  cent  or  15  per  cent  would  be  more  like  what  is  required 
to  induce  capital  to  go  into  that  field. 

So  far  as  I  am  in  touch  with  the  class  of  investors  who  can  be 
induced  to  undertake  the  development  of  water  powers,  I  believe  I 
am  justified  in  saying  that,  while  there  are  in  other  quarters  decided 
differences  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  governmental  control  should 
be  Federal  or  State,  the  water-power  investor  as  a  rule  does  not  care 
which  it  is,  provided  it  is  not  both  at  the  same  time.  He  insists  that 
he  serve  but  one  master. 

It  is  feared  that  if  the  control  is  dual  a  conflict  might  arise  between 
the  State  and  Federal  authorities  which  would  result  in  injury  to  the 
imrestor.  There  is  a  feeling,  however,  that  because  the  State  has  an 
inalienable  right  to  regulate  public-utility  corporations  doing  busi¬ 
ness  within  its  boundaries  the  Federal  Government  should  relinquish 
to  the  State  its  right  to  exercise  a  control,  provided  that  the  develop¬ 
ing  agent  takes  the  form  of  a  duly  incorporated  public-service  cor¬ 
poration,  subject  to  and  recognizing  the  State’s  right  to  supervise 
and  control  its  acts.  Since  its  revenue  would  be  derived  almost  wholly 
from  the  sale  of  its  power  for  public  uses,  it  would  not  be  a  difficult 
matter  to  determine  what  its  actual  profits  are,  and  the  State,  through 


12 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


its  power  to  regulate,  would  always  be  in  a  position  to  place  a  reason¬ 
able  limit  upon  those  profits  by  reduction  of  prices,  by  taxation,  or 
by  both. 

It  is  for  a  public  use  of  this  kind  for  water  powers  that  there  is 
now  so  pressing  a  need  for  legislation. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  call  attention  to  what  seems  to  be 
a  fundamental  difference  in  the  case  where  a  power  site  is  to  be 
developed  for  private  use.  When  developed  for  such  a  use  the  profits 
would  not  be  derived  from  the  sale  of  power  but  from  the  sale  of 
commodities  manufactured  by  the  use  of  that  power,  and  it  would  be 
much  more  difficult  in  this  case  to  put  into  practice  an  effective  plan 
of  control  which  would  give  to  the  people  what  might  be  considered 
their  fair  share  of  the  values  created  by  the  development. 

The  treatment  of  this  private  use  of  water  powers  may  require  for 
its  correct  solution  more  time  for  further  reflection  and  study,  and  if 
this  be  true  it  would  seem  the  part  of  wisdom  not  to  delay  action 
pending  the  necessary  discussion,  but  to  proceed  at  once  to  bring 
about  legislation  that  will  enable  public-service  corporations  to  raise 
the  money  necessary  to  make  water-power  developments  for  public 
use,  leaving  until  a  future  time  the  settlement  of  the  more  difficult 
question  of  the  private  use  of  water  powers. 

While  there  does  not  seem  to  be,  other  than  the  desire  to  eliminate 
a  dual  control,  any  marked  preference  on  the  part  of  the  water¬ 
power  investors  for  Federal  or  State  control,  there  does  seem  to  exist 
a  very  marked  preference  for  a  Federal  control  on  the  part  of  those 
who  have  been  heretofore  most  active  in  the  conservation  movement. 

As  I  understand  the  matter,  their  preference  for  Federal  control 
springs  from  a  distrust  of  the  State’s  machinery  for  control.  They 
understand  the  advantage  to  any  community  accruing  from  the  ex¬ 
penditure  in  it  of  very  large  sums  of  money  on  construction  work, 
with  the  prospect  of  added  population  and  employment  after  the 
power  development  has  been  made.  They  fear  that  if  two  States  con¬ 
taining  water-power  sites  become  active  competitors  for  the  expendi¬ 
ture  of  money  in  hydroelectric  development  capital  might  obtain  con¬ 
cessions  which  would  limit  the  opportunities  of  the  people  to  par¬ 
ticipate  to  the  extent  they  ought  in  the  values  created  by  the  develop¬ 
ment.  In  other  words,  if  I  correctly  understand  their  position,  they 
regard  the  people  of  the  general  section  in  which  the  development  is 
to  be  made  as  incapacitated  through  self-interest  to  look  after  the 
welfare  of  those  to  come  after,  and  they  desire  that  the  Federal  Gov¬ 
ernment  shall  exercise  a  guardianship  over  the  future  of  the  State, 
because  they  believe  the  Federal  Government  to  be  free  from  the  evil 
influences  of  self-interest. 

A  strong  preference  in  favor  of  control  by  the  State  is  held  by  those 
who  are  citizens  of  the  State  and  who  believe  that  in  the  long  run 
control  by  the  State  will  be  more  truly  responsive  to  the  legitimate 
needs  of  both  the  people  and  the  power  companies.  They  point  out 
that  the  uses  to  which  these  water  powers  will  be  put  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  country  and  the  conditions  surrounding  these  uses  will 
be  so  different  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  controlling  body  at  long 
distance  from  the  place  of  use  can  be  made  to  understand  and  prop¬ 
erly  administer  to  the  needs  of  the  particular  locality. 

The  question  of  a  limited  tenure,  however,  seems  to  be  the  real 
sticking  point.  Because  I  believe  there  is  much  merit  in  the  argu- 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


13 


ments  of  those  who  affirm  that  it  is  against  the  true  interest  of  the 
public  to  limit  the  tenure  of  sites  granted  to  public-service  corpora¬ 
tions,  except  for  breach  of  contract,  I  will  summarize  as  best  I  can 
their  position. 

A  public-service  corporation  created  by  the  State  and  engaged  in 
a  work  of  internal  improvement  is  quasi  public  in  character  and 
is  entitled  in  many  States  to  exercise  the  State’s  sovereign  power 
of  eminent  domain.  The  generation  and  distribution  of  electricity 
to  municipalities  and  the  public  generally  is  a  public  use,  and  an 
association  organized  as  a  public-service  corporation  engaged  in 
generating  electricity  by  water  power  and  offering  it  for  sale  to  the 
public  is  in  effect  an  agent  of  the  State  supplying  a  public  use  and 
as  such  is  subject  to  the  State’s  supervision  and  control. 

Most  States  have  by  legislation  provided  the  machinery  to  give 
effect  to  this  right  to  supervise  and  control,  and  it  should  be  con¬ 
ceded  that  those  States  that  have  not  yet  done  so  will  not  neglect 
much  longer  to  give  effect  to  those  rights. 

The  State’s  sovereign  power  to  supervise  and  control  a  public- 
service  corporation  extends  not  only  to  the  power  to  regulate  and 
fix  prices,  but  it  extends  to  the  character  of  the  service  and  to  every 
act  which  directly  or  indirectly  influences  the  public  welfare. 

The  business  served  by  a  public-service  corporation  supplying 
electricity  never  ends  its  growth.  It  is,  so  far  as  experience  teaches, 
continually  growing  and  expanding. 

In  prosperous  communities  the  annual  requirements  of  such  com¬ 
panies  for  new  capital  for  improvements  and  extensions  often  largely 
exceeds  the  annual  net  earnings  and  at  times  exceeds  the  annual 
gross  earnings,  so  that  the  ability  of  the  company  to  give  adequate 
service  is  dependent  upon  its  ability  to  continually  secure  money  for 
its  extensions.  If  for  any  reason  the  credit  of  a  company  is  im¬ 
paired,  its  ability  to  make  extensions  is  impaired,  and  to  that  extent 
its  ability  to  adequately  serve  the  public  is  impaired. 

A  public-service  corporation  operating  a  water  power  under  a 
limited  tenure  would  not  be  able  to  raise  money  for  extensions  or 
improvements  which  it  could  not  demonstrate  would  be  returned, 
principal  and  interest,  out  of  earnings  prior  to  the  limit  of  its 
tenure. 

During  each  succeeding  year  of  operation  the  sinking-fund  per¬ 
centage  on  moneys  expended  for  improvements  during  the  year  would 
have  to  be  increased.  This  would  necessitate  an  increase  in  price 
each  year,  which  the  State’s  right  to  control  might  not  be  able  to 
prevent,  because  the  State’s  right  does  not  extend  to  a  confiscation 
of  property,  and  the  prices  may  not  be  regulated  below  a  point  which 
would  prevent  the  return  to  investors  of  the  principal,  with  interest, 
at  the  expiration  of  the  tenure  period. 

Prices  would  thus  grow  each  year  until  they  reached  the  limit  of 
what  the  traffic  would  bear.  Above  this  they  could  not  go;  so  that 
when  this  limit  was  reached  the  demand  for  new  capital  for  exten¬ 
sions  would  automatically  cease  and  growth  would  end. 

The  community  would  thus  be  without  adequate  service  and  would 
be  paying  for  such  service  as  was  rendered  all  the  traffic  would  bear, 
with  the  further  disadvantage  of  not  being  able  to  get  any  more 
service  even  at  such  a  price. 


14 


CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES. 


At  what  stage  in  the  tenure  period  this  condition  would  occur 
would  depend  upon  how  cheaply  the  water  power  could  produce 
electricity.  If  the  cost  was  substantially  equal  to  that  by  coal,  then 
this  condition  would  be  reached  early  in  the  tenure  period.  If  the 
cost  was  lower,  then  this  condition  would  be  reached  later. 

To  make  clear  why,  after  the  water  power  is  put  in  operation, 
there  is  need  for  such  a  constant  supply  of  new  capital,  I  may  say 
that  it  is  seldom  that  the  initial  expenditure  at  a  water-power  site 
fully  develops  it.  The  initial  expenditure  is  kept  as  small  as  possible 
consistent  with  the  existing  market.  As  new  business  is  secured, 
further  expenditures  are  necessary  both  at  the  hydroelectric  plant 
and  in  added  transmission  facilities. 

It  is  proper  to  include  the  cost  of  the  transmission  facilities  in  the 
amount  to  be  amortized,  because  this  is  merely  the  body,  in  which 
the  water  power  is  the  heart.  If  deprived  of  the  heart’s  action,  the 
body  dies. 

To  properly  perform  its  function  to  the  public,  a  public-service 
corporation  should  be  able,  indeed  it  should  be  required,  to  serve 
within  its  sphere  every  legitimate  need  of  the  public.  If  the  public 
welfare  requires  that  the  corporation  should  enter  into  long-time  or 
even  perpetual  contracts  with  its  consumers,  it  should  be  under  no 
legal  disability  to  do  so. 

One  case  will  illustrate  the  point. 

Many  of  the  western  power  sites  when  developed  will  supply  large 
quantities  of  power  for  irrigation  to  be  used  in  pumping  water  on 
lands  that  can  not  be  profitably  irrigated  by  coal  power. 

It  is  the  experience  that  irrigation  projects  can  not  be  financed 
unless  the  water  right  is  perpetual  and  runs  with  the  land. 

If  this  be  true,  then  such  irrigation  projects  as  I  have  described 
can  not  be  financed  without  a  perpetual  contract  for  power.  Ob¬ 
viously  a  public-service  corporation  may  not  make  a  contract  for 
service  bevond  the  limit  of  its  tenure  unless  the  State  is  obligated  at 
such  date  to  take  over  and  assume  the  contract. 

More  could  be  said  on  this  general  subject  of  credits,  prices,  and 
service,  but  I  think  I  have  said  sufficient  to  show  the  baneful  in¬ 
fluence  upon  the  usefulness  to  the  public  of  a  public-service  corpora¬ 
tion  operating  a  water  power  under  a  limited  tenure. 

However  expedient  it  may  be  considered  to  apply  the  principle  of 
limited  tenure  to  a  water  power  built  to  serve  a  private  use,  I  think 
we  should,  in  view  of  the  arguments  just  stated,  gravely  consider 
whether  in  the  case  of  a  public-service  corporation  acting  as  the  agent 
of  the  State  the  proposed  requirement  of  a  limited  tenure  should  not 
be  abandoned. 

I  have  tried  to  present  the  matters  herein  discussed  in  a  fair  and  im¬ 
partial  light,  and  I  should  be  glad  to  think  that  I  had  in  your  opinion 

succeeded. 

Facing,  as  we  all  are,  such  a  tremendous  waste  in  our  natural  re¬ 
sources  from  further  delay  in  developing  our  water  powers,  I  appeal 
to  all  patriotic  men  and  women,  without  regard  to  previous  convic¬ 
tions  on  this  subject,  to  again  examine  the  grounds  for  your  convic¬ 
tions  and  to  make  your  conscience  the  judge  of  how  far  you  should 
yield  in  an  effort  to  reach  an  agreement  that  will  put  a  stop  to  this 
waste  by  a  speedy  development  of  the  powers. 

o 


■ 


PROGRESS  REPORT 


OF 


AND  UNDERFLOW  INVESTIGATION 


BETWEEN  THE 


INETY -SEVENTH  DEGREE  OF  WEST  LONGITUDE  AND 
THE  FOOT-HILLS  OF  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS, 


WITH 


MAPS  AND  PROFILES. 


PART  II* 


'REPARED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE 


BY 


EDWIN  S.  NETTLETON,  C.  E., 
QH1TCV  engineer  of  investigation. 


WASHINGTON  r 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1891. 


*30.6f7'o 


DEFORESxii _ iN  CLIMATE. 


^hd.v- 

exchange  the  price  offered  to  the  producer  is  actually  less  than  it  costs 
him  to  gather  and  prepare  his  crop,  not  including  its  bringing  to  this 
market,  and  consequently  orders  have  been  sent  up  the  river  not  to 
gather  the  cacao,  but  to  let  it  rot  on  the  trees.  Meanwhile  no  reduc¬ 
tion  has  been  made  in  the  enormous  taxes  and  duties  imposed,  and, 
indeed,  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  will  be  increased  in  the  near 
future.  Nor  has  there  been  any  diminution  in  the  prices  of  ordinary 
commodities,  although  at  present  rates  everything  is  actually  costing 
nearly  40  per  cent  more  in  gold  than  two  months  ago.  Thus  a  house 
renting  for  100  paper  milreis  a  month  cost  the  tenant  two  months  ago 
$24.57  in  gold,  and  now  costs  him  $34.42  in  gold. 

Recently  loans  have  been  effected  bv  various  States  and  municipali¬ 
ties  of  Brazil  which  are  bringing  into  the  country  about  $60,750,000, 
and  it  is  thought  that  this  great  influx  of  gold  has  had  something  to 
do  with  the  appreciation  in  value  of  the  paper  milreis,  but  this  theory 
is  not  tenable,  or  at  least  can  only  in  part  explain  the  phenomenon. 
Besides,  the  interest  on  this  and  other  foreign  loans  must  soon  be  paid 
and  in  gold. 

Whatever  the  real  causes  of  the  rise  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the 
banks  are  in  great  distress  and  doubt.  It  is  not  believed  that  the  rise 
will  be  maintained,  but  there  is  no  factor  upon  which  to  form  an 
opinion  as  to  the  time  when  a  fall  will  occur  in  values  or  the  extent 
of  it.  The  present  price  of  rubber  abroad  is  firm  and  with  a  slightly 
rising  tendency,  but  should  the  market  weaken  the  effect  would  quickly 
be  felt  here.  Fortunately  for  the  rubber  producers,  the  rubber  season 
is  practically  over  until  fall,  by  which  time  some  solution  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  problem  may  be  expected.  The  general  fear  is  that  this  solution 
will  assume  the  nature  of  an  acute  financial  crisis,  followed  by  a  panic 
and  disastrous  failures. 


Para,  Brazil,  May  10 ,  1905. 


Louis  H.  Ayme,  Consul. 


\ 


j  DEFORESTATION  AND  CLIMATE. 

( From  United  States  Consul- General  Guenther,  Frankfort,  Germany.) 


During  the  May  session  of  the  German  Meteorological  Society  at 
Berlin  a  lecture  on  “  Deforestation  and  climate”  was  delivered  by 
Doctor  Hennig,  from  which  I  take  the  following  extracts: 

The  interest  in  deforestation  and  forestry  may  be  called  general  and 
public.  Whether  forests  exercise  a  perceptible  influence  upon  the  cli¬ 
mate  is  a  very  old  question,  and  even  to-day  it  is  not  definite!}7  settled. 
In  many  countries  a  drying  up  of  the  climate  has  occurred,  which  is 
shown  perhaps  most  strikingly  in  almost  the  whole  of  Africa.  That 
deforesting  has  assumed  constantly  growing  proportions  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world  is  still  more  apparent.  The  climate  of  Greece, 
where  to-day  only  16  per  cent  of  the  area  is  covered  with  forests,  has 


V. 


' 


DAILY  CONSULAR  AND  TRADE  REPORTS. 


5 


interruption  of  traffic.  Engineers  claim  that  with  the  modern  rapid 
dredging  and  excavating  machinery  the  work  may  well  be  completed 
in  fifteen  years.  The  great  island  formed  by  the  new  and  the  old 
beds  of  the  Scheldt  will  absorb  the  villages  of  Austruweel,  Oorderen, 
and  Wilmarsdonck,  which  will  cease  to  exist,  and  the  land  will  be 
available  for  all  kinds  of  industries,  and  could  be  used  for  the  estab¬ 
lishing  of  a  free  port,  frequently  asked  for  by  the  Antwerp  trade. 
As  to  the  realization  of  the  project,  the  Government  is  consulting  the 
most  eminent  engineers  of  the  world.  As  to  the  financial  possibili¬ 
ties,  the  Minister  of  Finance  has  given  the  city  the  assurance  that  the 
Government  will  advance  all  the  funds  required  and,  when  matters 
are  definitely  settled,  the  city  will  be  given  all  the  time  it  requires  to 
take  up  its  share  of  the  burden  on  the  easiest  terms.  The  Govern¬ 
ment’s  proposition  is  most  magnanimous,  and  now  leaves  no  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  execution. 

It  has  been  decided  by  the  Government  to  begin  work  at  once  on  a 
small  section  of  the  proposed  canal  with  the  first  two  corresponding 
subsidiary  docks. 

The  fullest  details,  with  a  complete  description  and  statistics,  will 
be  found  in  a  work  entitled  “  Notice  sur  le  port  d’Anvers,”  written  by 
Mr.  Kinart,  engineer  of  the  city  of  Antwerp. 


PERSIAN  RUGS  AND  EMBROIDERIES. 

AMERICAN  ORDERS  CURTAILED  AND  PRODUCTION  IS  GREATLY  RESTRICTED. 

Consul  AY.  F.  Doty  sends  from  Tabriz  the  following  statement  of 
the  depressed  conditions  in  the  Persian  rug  trade  and  the  beauty  of 
Persian  needlework: 

Owing  to  the  closing  of  the  bazaars  at  Tabriz  and  many  other 
cities  of  Persia  during  the  past  ten  months,  and  to  the  difficulties  of 
transportation  on  the  highways,  the  rug  industry  has  suffered  ma¬ 
terially.  Added  to  this  has  been  the  lessened  American  demand  for 
luxuries  such  as  Persian  rugs.  Prices  have  fallen  here  at  times  re¬ 
cently  by  one-third,  and  rug  exports  have  fallen  off  one-half  lately. 

Large  carpet  factories  have  had  to  close,  fearful  of  being  looted, 
but  possibly  a  month  or  two  hence  conditions  will  improve.  A  year 
or  two  will  bring  about  higher  prices.  Labor  here  now  commands 
only  between  5  and  10  cents  a  day. 

Persia  still  produces  excellent  effects  in  needlework.  Embroidery 
in  gold  and  silver  thread  is  very  attractive,  especially  when  the  de¬ 
signs  upon  velvet  or  silk  are  delicate  traceries  of  roses  and  other 
flowers,  the  characteristic  palm  leaf,  or  of  trees  with  spreading 
branches  in  which  are  birds,  or  of  representations  of  hunting  scenes. 
Resht  at  present  is  especially  renowned  for  its  silk  embroideries. 
Upon  broadcloth  small  pieces  depicting  the  human  figure,  animals, 
flowers,  or  other  suitable  designs  are  sewed  with  silk  threads.  The 
result  is  very  pleasing.  There  is  similar  wTork  made  of  velvet  and 
silk.  These  embroideries  are  suitable  especially  for  wall  hangings 
and  for  covers  for  divans  and  cushions.  More  rarely  are  to  be  found 
rugs  of  silk  or  velvet  exquisitely  embroidered  with  threads  of  silk, 
and  even  of  gold  and  silver.  It  is  understood  that  modern  Europe 
gained  its  inspiration  for  exquisite  embroidery  from  Persia. 


6 


f 

DATLY  CONSULAR  AND  TRADE  REPORTS. 

AUTOMOBILE  TRADE. 

TURKISH  EMPIRE. 

A  LARGE  TRADE  IN  AUTOMOBILES  ANTICIPATED. 

Information  concerning  the  automobiling  routes  in  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey  and  what  American  manufacturers  must  do  if  thev 
would  fully  participate  in  the  anticipated  trade  in  automobiles  in 
that  Empire,  is  furnished  by  Consul-General  Ernest  L.  Harris,  of 
Smyrna,  who  writes: 

The  following  article  from  the  July  number  of  the  Near  East,  an 
English  publications,  will  be  of  interest  not  only  to  automobile  manu¬ 
facturers  in  the  United  States,  but  to  pleasure  seekers  as  well  who  are 
planning  tours  abroad  with  their  own  machines.  This  office  is  often 
in  receipt  of  questions  in  this  respect,  and  the  article  is  full  of  infor¬ 
mation  : 

This  is  the  first  year  that  motoring  in  any  form  has  been  allowed  in  the 
Turkish  Empire.  The  Imperial  irade  was  issued  in  the  latter  part  of  1907, 
and  the  spring  season  this  year  saw  several  motors  on  the  roads  adjoining  the 
city  of  Constantinople.  The  Turk  hails  them  with  pleasure,  and  the  rich 
pashas  and  other  notabilities  will  soon  be  using  them  instead  of  the  highly 
trapped  horses  and  Parisian  and  Viennese  carriages  now  so  much  in  evidence. 
Unfortunately  there  are  no  English  cars  here.  One  naturally  asks  the  reason 
for  this.  From  the  representatives  of  English  firms  I  learn  that  English  motor 
manufacturers  will  not  conform  to  the  practice  pursued  by  makers  in  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  and  Belgium.  That  is  to  say,  they  refuse  to  send  cars,  accom¬ 
panied  by  chauffeurs,  for  the  Turkish  population  to  see.  They  do  not  realize 
that  the  motors  first  installed  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  will  capture  the  cream 
of  the  trade.  The  idea  prevails  in  Turkey  that  the  goods  to  buy  are  the  goods 
which  are  well  displayed;  and  I  am  very  much  afraid  that  English  motor 
manufacturers  will  be  left  out  in  the  cold,  so  far  as  this  new  field  for  their 
industry  is  concerned,  unless  they  adopt  common-sense  methods. 

As  regards  the  future  of  the  motor  in  Turkey,  let  us  consider  first  the  pleasure 
car  or  the  passenger  vehicle  propelled  by  petrol.  The  roads  are  in  places 
rough  and  hilly,  but  the  writer  has  seen  motors  in  Russia  and  in  the  back- 
woods  of  America  driven  over  much  rougher  thoroughfares  without  the  least 
trouble.  Motors  for  use  in  Turkey  must  have  strong  elastic  springs  and  shock 
absorbers.  They  must  also  be  of  the  4-cylinder  type  and  run  noiselessly, 
which  the  foreign  cars  I  have  seen  do  not  do.  The  English  manufacturer 
should  remember  that  in  the  Turkish  Empire  there  are  30,000,000  of  people 
who  as  yet  have  no  motor  car  of  any  sort.  The  10  to  15  horsepower  car 
of  good  English  make  will  climb  any  hill  in  Turkey  if  placed  in  well-trained 
hands.  Here,  again,  is  a  point  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  No  one  is 
quicker  to  pick  up  engineering  than  the  Turk  or  the  Greek,  and  there  are  any 
number  of  young  men  here  who  could  be  turned  into  competent  chauffeurs  in  a 
few  days. 

ROADS  IN  EUROPEAN  TURKEY. 

The  roads  in  Constantinople  are  badly  paved.  The  streets  of  Galata  and 
Stnmboul  can  be  traversed  only  at  slow  and  careful  pace,  and  this  will  be  the 
case  until  the  public  grows  accustomed  to  the  horseless  vehicle.  The  swarms 
of  carriages  plying  for  hire  would  astonish  even  the  promoters  of  the  numer¬ 
ous  taxicab  companies  in  London,  and  if  some  of  these  enterprising  gentlemen 
would  spend  a  fraction  of  their  promotion  profits  in  this  city  they  would  reap 
a  rich  harvest.  The  roads  outside  the  city  on  the  European  side  afford  an 
excellent  run  to  the  Sweet  Waters  of  Europe,  with  a  stiff  hill  to  climb  coming 
back — a  hill,  however,  which  an  English  car  would  delight  in  leaving  its  mark 
upon.  To  this  spot  the  whole  of  the  pleasure-loving  section  of  the  population 
goes  on  Fridays  and  Sundays.  One  meets  thousands  of  carriages  containing 
richly  attired  ladies  who,  could  they  but  have  the  chance,  would  possess  them¬ 
selves  of  an  English  car. 

The  return  route  to  Constantinople  is  through  Chicili,  a  residential  quarter. 
Subsequently  one  passes  through  Nichantache,  where  many  wealthy  Turks 


PROPOSED  REVISION  OF  THE  HAITIAN  TARIFF. 


6 


deteriorated.  An  increase  of  temperature  and  decrease  of  rain  are 
noted,  compared  with  ancient  times,  especially  in  Attica,  which  was 
thickly  covered  with  forests  about  three  thousand  years  ago,  and  where 
hardly  any  rain  now  falls,  while  the  heat  in  the  open  air  attains  a 
degree  which  would  make  the  “  Olympian  games”  almost  an  impossi¬ 
bility  .  A  similar  condition  exists  in  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai,  where 
thousands  of  years  ago  the  people  of  Israel  lived  in  a  luxuriant  and 
fertile  country"  and  where  to-day  only  forestless  deserts  abound. 
Palmyra,  also  once  a  flourishing  oasis  in  the  Syrian  desert,  presents 
to-day  only  a  desolate  waste  of  stones  and  ruins.  In  Mexico,  where 
the  Spaniards  cut  down  the  forests  in  the  mountains,  droughts  chang¬ 
ing  to  devastating  floods  are  now  noticeable,  especially  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  City  of  Mexico.  In  upper  Egypt,  where  only  one  hundred 
years  ago  rain  was  abundant,  drought  now  usually  prevails.  In  Algeria, 
where,  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  forests  have  been  cut 
down  on  a  large  scale,  dry  weather  has  increased,  and  in  Venezuela 
the  level  of  Lake  Tacarigua,  to  which  Alexander  von  Humboldt  drew 
attention,  has  been  lowered  in  consequence  of  deforestation. 

If  these  and  other  facts  are  kept  in  mind  the  sentence,  “Man  trav¬ 
erses  the  earth  and  a  desert  results,”  is  understood.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten,  however,  that  this  applies  mainly  to  the  influence  of  civil¬ 
ization  upon  appearances  and  is  not  always  due  to  climatic  changes 
produced  by  deforesting.  Some  authorities  even  deny  the  influence 
of  forests  on  the  weather  and  climate.  It  can  not  be  denied,  however, 
that  dense  forests  favor  moisture  and  prevent  the  drying  out  of  the 
soil  to  a  considerable  degree.  At  any  rate,  deforesting,  which  in 
modern  times  assumes  constantly  growing  proportions  for  industrial 
and  agricultural  purposes,  is  of  universal  importance. 

Germany,  with  a  forest  area  of  about  26  per  cent,  realizes  annually 
nearly  $60,000,000  worth  of  timber  therefrom,  while  the  wood  importa¬ 
tions  are  about  of  the  same  value.  The  consumption  of  wood  increases 
from  year  to  year,  and  systematic  forestry  has  not  succeeded  in  keep¬ 
ing  up  the  forest  area  of  Germany.  If  it  is  furthermore  borne  in  mind 
that  Canada,  which  formerly  possessed  more  than  300,000,000  acres  of 
forests,  has  to-day  only  a  forest  area  of  about  225,000,000  acres,  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  question  of  deforestation  assumes  great  impor¬ 
tance.  If  civilization  continues  to  change  the  face  of  the  earth  the 
problem  of  its  wood  supply  will  present  itself  like  that  of  coal  and 
force  the  finding  of  a  suitable  substitute. 

Richard  Guenther,  Consul-General. 

Frankfort,  Germany,  May  16 ,  1905. 


PROPOSED  REVISION  OF  THE  HAITIAN  TARIFF. 

( From  United  States  Minister  Powell ,  Port  au  Prince,  Haiti.) 

The  Government’s  commission  to  revise  the  tariff  has  made  its  report 
to  the  President,  which  will  be  laid  before  the  present  Congress  for 
its  approval. 

The  following  recommendations  are  the  salient  features  of  the  report: 

1.  That  all  duties  be  taken  off  imported  agricultural  machines. 

2.  That  Haitian  consuls  at  foreign  ports  be  allowed  to  collect  cer¬ 
tain  fees  formerly  paid  here. 


NOTES. 


7 


3.  That  the  payment  of  tonnage  dues  of  sailing  vessels  be  modified 
and  made  similar  to  those  of  steamers. 

4.  That  sailing  vessels  arriving  in  ballast  shall  pay  no  tonnage  dues 
and  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  steamers. 

5.  That  Haitian  vessels  doing  a  coasting  trade  between  the  islands 
of  the  West  Indies  shall  in  future  pay  the  same  as  other  vessels  not 
Haitian  that  make  vo}Tages  to  ports  outside  of  territorial  waters,  for 
light-house  fees,  sanitary  fees,  pilotage,  and  tonnage  dues. 

6.  That  custom-house  inspectors  be  established,  charged  with  a  gen¬ 
eral  oversight  in  the  collection  of  duties  and  the  inspection  of  the 
records  of  each  port. 

7.  That  there  be  a  reduction  of  duty  of  5  per  cent  ad  valorem  on 
the  following:  Tinware,  embroidered  bands,  laces  and  insertions,  sad¬ 
dle  cloths,  empty  barrels,  billiard  balls,  marble  slabs,  cigars,  glass 
beads,  maldioc  or  racaille,  pens,  chemical  products,  screws,  surgical 
apparatus,  buckles  for  saddles,  and  indigo. 

8.  That  an  additional  duty  be  levied  on  the  following:  Cotton  draw¬ 
ers,  biscuits,  cotton,  woolen,  and  print  shirts  for  men,  liquid  glue, 
linen  cravats. 

9.  That  the  following  articles  not  named  in  previous  tariffs  be 
required  to  pay  an  ad  valorem  duty:  Photographic  apparatus,  lamp 
burners,  squared  wood,  buckets,  vermouth  in  barrels,  carefons,  corset 
covers,  undershirts,  lead,  shoemakers’  knives,  small  veils,  and  garters. 

10.  That  duties  on  church  ornaments  be  reduced  20  per  cent. 

11.  That  there  be  an  increase  in  the  classes  of  wood  that  pay  duty, 
and  that  they  pa}^  at  the  rate  of  5  cents  for  1,000  pounds,  instead 
of  100  pounds  as  stated  in  the  present  tariff,  on  woods  and  roots 
undesignated. 

12.  That  the  duty  of  2  cents  gold  on  hides  be  abolished  and  that  the 
duty  be  reduced  from  3  gourdes  ($2.90)  per  100  pounds  to  1  gourde 
(96.5  cents)  per  100  pounds. 

13.  That  the  duty  on  goat  and  sheep  skins  be  increased. 

W.  F.  Powell,  Minister. 

Port  au  Prince,  Haiti,  May  1905. 


NOTES. 

Motor  Cycles  in  England. — British  manufacturers  report  a  great 
falling  off  in  the  demand  for  motor  cycles,  and  express  the  belief  that 
this  branch  of  the  industry  is  doomed.  A  large  number  of  orders  have 
been  canceled,  and  second-hand  machines,  hardly  the  worse  for  wear, 
are  to  be  had  as  low  as  £T8  ($87.60).  The  collapse  of  the  trade  is  said 
to  be  due  to  the  dislike  to  the  machines  owing  to  their  vibration  and 
noise,  which  eventuallv  become  intolerable  to  the  rider,  and  also  to 
the  extreme  liability  of  their  delicate  mechanism  to  get  out  of  order. — 
John  J.  Stephens ,  Vice  and  Deputy  Consul ,  Plymouth ,  England ,  May 
U,  1005. 


. 


' 


1  ;  :  •  • 


g| 

■  yj I  HI  |  HB 


NOTES. 


8 


Canadian  Tenders. — Under  date  of  June  6,  1905,  United  States 
Consul-General  W.  R.  Holloway,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  transmits  the 
following*  trade  notes: 

The  department  of  railways  and  canals  at  Ottawa  is  inviting*  tenders 
for  the  supply  of  stone  and  the  placing  of  a  stone  protection  along 
portions  of  the  summit  level  of  the  Welland  Canal  between  Thorold 
and  Port  Colborne,  Ontario. 

Tenders  for  the  purchase  of  debentures  of  the  town  of  Dauphin, 
Manitoba,  amounting  to  $35,000,  for  electric-light  plant,  power  house, 

and  for  completing  town  and  lire  hall  will  be  received  b}r  William 

_  / 

Pintoul,  secretary-treasurer,  at  Dauphin,  Manitoba. 

D.  Quinlan,  Barrie,  Ontario,  will  receive  tenders  for  the  erection  of 
a  reenforced  concrete  arch  bridge  over  the  Mad  River  at  Glen  Houror, 
Ontario;  also  for  a  bridge  with  stone  abutments  and  steel  superstructure 
with  reinforced  concrete  floor  at  the  same  place. 


Destroying  Plant  Lice. — The  Practical  Counselor  for  Fruit  and 
Garden  Culture,  of  Frankfort,  recently  offered  a  prize  for  the  best 
method  of  destroying  plant  lice,  for  which  58  persons  competed.  The 
prize  was  awarded  to  the  author  of  the  following  preparation:  Quassia 
wood  2^  pounds,  to  be  soaked  overnight  in  10  quarts  of  water  and 
well  boiled,  then  strained  through  a  cloth,  and  placed,  with  100  quarts 
of  water,  in  a  petroleum  barrel,  with  5  pounds  of  soft  soap.  The  mix¬ 
ture  is  then  ready  for  sprinkling  on  plants  infested  with  lice.  Leaves, 
even  those  of  peach  trees,  will  not  be  injured  in  the  least  by  the  solu¬ 
tion,  which  can  be  kept  covered  in  the  barrel  from  spring  to  fall 
without  deterioration.  As  soon  as  lice  appear  the  leaves  should  be 
sprinkled  with  the  solution.  If  this  is  repeated  several  times  the 
pests  will  disappear. — Richard  Guenther ,  Consul-General ,  Frankfort , 
Germany ,  May  £7,  1905. 

Imports  of  Starch  into  Uruguay. — Under  date  of  May  5,  1905, 
United  States  Consul  John  E.  Hopley,  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  trans¬ 
mits  the  following  statistics,  prepared  at  the  request  of  an  American 
correspondent: 


Imports  of  starch  into  Uruguay  during  the  years  1898  to  1903. 


Whence  imported. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

Belgium . 

France . 

Great  Britain . 

Germany . 

Italy  . .  . 

Metric  tons. 
102.6 
7.4 

1.9 
169.0 

.2 

9.9 

Metric  tons. 

81.5 
1.2 

16.5 
158.6 

Metric  tons. 
73.3 
1.2 
4.5 
173.3 
5.9 
.7 

Metric  tons. 
97.0 
2.2 
.6 
142.9 
.2 
5.6 

Metric  tons. 

54.3 
1.7 

166. 7 

10.4 

Metric  tons. 
29.7 
8.2 
10.2 
233. 5 
24.9 
3.3 

United  States  .* . 

Total . 

.7 

291.0 

258. 5 

258.9 

248. 5 

233. 1 

309.8 

o 


‘  rry 


m 

V.  -  - 


. 

lif  2 


i’ 

n 

ft 


3  30- 


/ 


Issued  March  11, 1912. 

U.  &  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

FOREST  SERVICE. 

HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Forester, 


BLTGELD  HALL  STACKS 


REVIEW 


T 


% 


OF 


FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS 


VOLUME  I. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 
1913. 


' 


.... 


i 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  I 


in 


*i4  ii 


Forest  Products  Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis. 


Issued  March  11,  1913. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

FOREST  SERVICE. 

HENRY  S.  GRAVES,  Forester. 


REVIEW 

OF 

FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOLUME  I. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1913. 


FOREST  SERVICE. 


Henry  S.  Graves,  Forester. 

Albert  F.  Potter,  Associate  Forester. 
Herbert  A.  Smith,  Editor. 


Central  Investigative  Committee. 

Raphael  Zon,  Chief  of  Silvics,  Chairman. 

J.  T.  Jardine,  Inspector  of  Grazing. 

Carlile  P.  Winslow,  Engineer  in  Forest  Products. 


District  Investigative  Committees. 

District  1: 

D.  T.  Mason,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Silviculture,  Chairman. 
C.  H.  Adams,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Grazing. 

P.  R.  Hicks,  Engineer  in  Wood  Preservation. 

Elers  Koch,  Supervisor  Lolo  National  Forest. 

District  2: 

C.  G.  Bates,  Chief  of  Silvics,  Chairman. 

J.  W.  Nelson,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Grazing. 

Norman  de  W.  Betts,  Engineer  in  Forest  Products. 

C.  M.  Granger,  Supervisor  Medicine  Bow  National  Forest. 

District  3: 

G.  A.  Pearson,  Chief  of  Silvics,  Chairman. 

Hugh  G.  Calkins,  Supervisor  Manzano  National  Forest. 

Don  P.  Johnston,  Supervisor  Gila  National  Forest. 

Stanton  G.  Smith,  Supervisor  Tusayan  National  Forest. 

District 

O.  M.  Butler,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Silviculture,  Chairman. 

H.  E.  Fenn,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Grazing. 

C.  G.  Smith,  Supervisor  Cache  National  Forest. 

District  5: 

J.  A.  Mitchell,  Chief  of  Silvics,  Chairman. 

C.  Stowell  Smith,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Products. 

John  H.  Hatton,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Grazing. 

P.  G.  Redington,  Supervisor  Sierra  National  Forest. 

District  6: 

T.  T.  Munger,  Chief  of  Silvics,  Chairman. 

H.  B.  Oakleaf,  Forest  Assistant  in  Products. 

T.  P.  Mackenzie,  Assistant  District  Forester  in  charge  of  Grazing. 

M.  L.  Merritt,  Deputy  Forest  Supervisor  in  charge  of  Reconnaissance. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Forest  Service, 

Washington ,  D.  C.,  October  11,  1912. 

.  Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  manuscript  entitled 
“Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations,”  Volume  I,  and  to  recom¬ 
mend  its  publication. 

Full  development  of  the  National  Forests  as  productive  resources 
involves  extensive  research  work.  Technical  forestry  is  a  branch  of 
scientific  agriculture  and  can  be  successfully  applied  only  as  practice 
is  based  on  accurate  knowledge.  From  the  wide  range  of  conditions 
which  the  National  Forests  present,  the  Forest  Service  has  found  it 
necessary  to  adopt  a  comprehensive  plan  of  studies  for  the  systematic 
investigation  of  many  problems. 

As  these  studies  progress  it  is  important  that  there  should  be  some 
means  of  keeping  the  entire  technical  force  informed  concerning  the 
results  obtained,  of  providing  for  free  discussion  of  methods  and  ten¬ 
tative  conclusions,  and  of  making  possible  such  immediate  modifica¬ 
tions  of  existing  practice  as  the  discoveries  made  may  warrant.  The 
Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations  has  been  planned  to  meet 
this  end.  Successive  numbers  will  be  issued  as  the  material  accumu¬ 
lated  permits.  The  Review  will  contain  progress  reports  on  uncom¬ 
pleted  investigations  and  final  reports  on  minor  experiments  which  do 
not  justify  separate  publication. 

It  will  follow  necessarily  from  the  purpose  which  the  Review  is 
designed  to  serve  that  a  certain  freedom  will  be  given  for  the  expres¬ 
sion  of  individual  opinion.  In  other  words,  the  Review  will  deal 
largely  with  matters  on  which  the  Forest  Service  can  not  yet  speak 
authoritatively;  the  views  presented  are  for  professional  considera¬ 
tion,  on  their  merits,  and  their  publication  by  no  means  implies  that 
full  responsibility  for  them  is  assumed  by  the  Forest  Service. 

While  the  Review  is  published  primarily  for  use  within  the  Forest 
Service,  it  will  unquestionably  be  valuable  also  to  professional  forest¬ 
ers  who  are  not  in  the  employ  of  the  Government  and  to  investigators 
in  closely  allied  fields  of  work.  A  limited  provision  for  public  distri¬ 
bution  to  such  persons  is  therefore  recommended.  The  Review  is, 
however,  of  professional,  not  of  popular,  character. 

•  Respectfully, 


Henry  S.  Graves, 

Forester. 


Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


3 


LABORATORIES  AND  FOREST  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  OF  THE 

FOREST  SERVICE. 


Forest  Products  Laboratory  (in  cooperation  with  the  University  of  Wisconsin),  Mad¬ 
ison,  Wis. 

Ground  Wood  Laboratory,  Wausau,  Wis. 

Wood  Testing  Laboratory  (in  cooperation  with  the  University  of  Washington),  Seattle, 
Wash. 

Priest  River  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Kaniksu  National  Forest,  Priest  River, 
Idaho. 

Cloquet  Experiment  Station  (in  cooperation  with  the  University  of  Minnesota), 
Cloquet,  Minn. 

Fremont  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Pike  National  Forest,  Manitou,  Colo. 

Wagon  Wheel  Gap  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Rio  Grande  National  Forest,  Wagon 
Wheel  Gap,  Colo. 

Fort  Valley  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Coconino  National  Forest,  Flagstaff,  Ariz. 

Utah  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Manti  National  Forest,  Ephraim,  LTtah. 

Feather  River  Experiment  Station,  on  the  Plumas  National  Forest,  Quincy,  Cal. 

Seed  Testing  Laboratory  and  Willow  Holt  Station,  Office  of  Silvics,  Arlington  Farm, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Dendrological  Laboratory,  Office  of  Dendrologist,  Washington,  D.  C. 

4 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Object  of  the  publication .  9 

Organization  and  scope  of  investigative  work .  10 

Description  of  the  different  lines  of  investigation .  12 

Dendrology .  12 

Forest-distribution  studies .  13 

Wood-structure  studies .  13 

Grazing .  14 

Artificial  reseeding .  15 

Natural  reseeding . , .  15 

Distribution  and  economic  importance  of  forage  plants .  15 

Forest  protection  (grazing) .  16 

Methods  of  handling  stock .  16 

Development  of  stock-watering  places .  16 

Poisonous-plant  investigations .  17 

Products .  17 

Mechanical  properties  of  wood .  18 

Tests  on  small  specimens  free  from  defects .  18 

Tests  on  structural  timbers .  19 

Tests  on  manufactured  articles .  19 

Effect  of  preservative  treatments,  moisture,  etc .  19 

Physical*  properties  of  wood .  19 

Fundamental  properties .  19 

Conditioning  experiments .  20 

General  studies .  21 

Relation  of  structure  to  properties .  21 

Wood  preservation .  21 

Preservatives .  22 

General .  22 

Physical  and  chemical  properties .  22 

Toxicity .  22 

Effect  on  strength  of  wood . 22 

I  nflammability .  22 

Ease  of  injection  into  wood .  22 

Processes .  23 

Suitability  of  species .  23 

Cooperative  field  wrork  and  service  tests .  23 

Products  derived  from  wood,  bark,  leaves,  and  the  growing  timber _  23 

Pulp  and  paper .  23 

Mechanical  or  grinding  processes .  24 

Chemical  processes .  24 

Wood  distillation . 25 

Hardwoods . 25 

Resinous  woods .  25 

Naval  stores  or  turpentine  and  rosin .  26 

Miscellaneous .  26 

Statistical  studies .  26 

Annual  production  of  forest  products .  27 

Uses  of  woods  and  the  manufacture  of  wooden  products .  27 

Lumber  prices .  27 

Miscellaneous . .  27 


5 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Description  of  the  different  lines  of  investigation — Continued.  Page. 

Silviculture .  27 

Forest  experiment  stations .  28 

Fort  Valley  Experiment  Station..' .  29 

Fremont  Experiment  Station .  29 

Wagon  Wheel  Gap  Experiment  Station .  30 

Priest  River  Experiment  Station .  30 

Feather  River  Experiment  Station .  30 

Utah  Experiment  Station . 30 

Arlington  Farm,  Washington,  D.  C .  30 

Forestation .  32 

Seed  investigations . . .  32 

Nursery  practice .  34 

Species,  methods,  and  seasons — Sites .  34 

Studies  in  range  extension  and  introduction  of  exotics .  35 

Forest  influences . * .  36 

Management  studies .  39 

Mensuration  studies .  40 

Protection  studies .  40 

Regional  studies .  41 

Silvical  studies .  41 

Tree  studies .  42 

Utilization  studies .  42 

The  program  of  investigative  work  for  1912 .  43 

Definition  of  a  project .  43 

Dendrology . 44 

A.  — Description  and  distribution  of  North  American  trees  and  shrubs .  44 

B.  — Identification  of  North  American  forest  trees .  44 

C.  — Identification  of  exotic  forest  trees .  45 

D.  — Special  studies .  45 

Grazing .  45 

A.  — Artificial  reseeding .  45 

B.  — Natural  reseeding . * .  45 

C.  — Distribution  and  economic  importance  of  forage  plants .  46 

D.  — Forest  protection  (grazing) .  46 

E.  — Methods  of  handling  stock .  46 

F.  — Development  of  stock- watering  places .  46 

G.  — Poisonous-plant  investigations  (cooperative) .  46 

H.  — Special  studies .  47 

Products .  47 

A.  — Mechanical  and  physical  properties  and  structure  of  woods .  47 

B.  — Wood  preservation .  49 

C.  — Derived  products  or  products  derived  from  wood,  bark,  leaves, 

and  the  growing  timber .  51 

D.  — Statistical  studies . . .  53 

Silviculture .  54 

A.  — Forestation. . , .  54 

B.  — Influences .  60 

C.  — Management .  60 

D.  — Mensuration .  63 

E.  — Protection .  64 

F.  — Regional  studies .  65 

G.  — Silvical  studies .  66 

H.  — Special .  67 

I.  — Tree  studies .  67 

J.  — Utilization .  68 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Plate  I.  Forest  Products  Laboratory,  Madison,  Wis .  Frontispiece. 


II.  Fig.  1.  Machines  for  testing  the  mechanical  properties  of  woods — 

Forest  Products  Laboratory.  Fig.  2.  Equipment  for  wood  preser¬ 
vation  experiments — Forest  Products  Laboratory .  20 

III.  Fig.  1.  Paper  Machine — Forest  Products  Laboratory.  Fig.  2.  Equip¬ 

ment  for  analyzing  and  testing  preservatives,  turpentines,  pro¬ 
ducts  of  wood  distillation,  etc. — Forest  Products  Laboratory .  24 

IV.  Fort  Valley  Experiment  Station .  28 

V.  Headquarters  of  Fremont  Experiment  Station .  28 

VI.  Fig.  1.  Headquarters  of  the  Wagon  Wheel  Gap  Experiment  Station. 

Fig.  2.  Interior  view  of  greenhouse,  Fremont  Experiment  Station . .  32 

VII.  Fig.  1.  Priest  River  Experiment  Station.  Laboratory  and  office 

building.  Fig.  2.  Greenhouse .  36 

VIII.  Meteorological  control  station . • .  36 


7 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS 

Volume  I. 


OBJECT  OF  THE  PUBLICATION. 

The  investigative  work  of  the  Forest  Service  has  greatly  broadened 
within  the  last  few  years.  A  large  and  well-equipped  laboratory 
in  forest  products  is  now  maintained  at  Madison,  Wis.,  in  coopera¬ 
tion  with  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  with  supplemental  studies 
in  the  East  and  West.  Three  Forest  experiment  stations  in  the 
central  and  southern  Rockies,  one  in  the  Sierras,  and  one  in  north¬ 
western  Idaho  have  been  established  on  National  Forests  for  intensive 
study  of  silvicultural  problems.  In  addition  one  experiment  station 
is  being  maintained  at  Cloquet,  Minn.,  in  cooperation  with  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Minnesota.  Aside  from  these  stations  an  enormous 
amount  of  investigative  work  has  been  inaugurated  in  reforestation, 
growth,  yield,  various  methods  of  cutting,  and  other  fundamental 
aspects  of  silviculture  in  every  part  of  the  country.  An  office  of 
grazing  studies  has  been  established.  Its  work,  already  begun  at 
a  grazing  experiment  station  in  Utah  and  on  several  Forests,  is 
being  rapidly  extended. 

The  growth  of  the  scientific  work  of  the  Service  is  a  natural  response 
to  increasing  demand  for  thorough  scientific  facts  upon  which  to 
base  the  proper  handling  of  the  forest  and  range.  The  development 
of  the  science  of  forestry  and  its  application  to  the  management 
of  the  forest  must  go  on  simultaneously.  But  meager  data  are  avail¬ 
able  in  this  country  upon  which  to  base  scientific  forest  management 
and  utilization,  as  the  practice  and  science  of  forestry  developed 
in  the  older  countries  are  of  little  direct  value  because  of  differences 
in  species  and  in  climatic  and  economic  conditions.  It  is  very 
important,  therefore,  that  the  results  of  investigative  work  be  made 
known,  as  soon  as  they  are  obtained,  to  the  practicing  forester, 
timber  owner  and  user,  and  to  the  profession  as  a  whole.  The 
results  of  the  more  important  investigations  of  the  Forest  Service 
are  sooner  or  later  issued  as  separate  publications  and  become  gen¬ 
erally  available.  The  completion  of  many  investigations,  however, 
often  requires  several  years,  during  which  very  little  is  known  of 
their  progress.  The  results  of  minor  investigations  and  observa¬ 
tions,  which  in  themselves  are  not  of  broad  enough  scope  or  suffi- 

9 


10 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vol.  I. 


eiently  conclusive  to  warrant  separate  •publications,  yet  in  the  aggre¬ 
gate  are  of  inestimable  value,  are  frequently  lost  to  foresters  outside 
the  locality  where  they  were  secured. 

To  provide  a  means  for  making  the  results  of  such  investigations 
systematically  available,  as  well  as  the  progress  attained  in  the 
major  investigations,  a  series  of  publications,  to  be  known  as  the 
“  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations,”  has  been  undertaken. 
The  object  of  these  publications,  of  which  this  is  the  first,  is  to  give 
periodically  a  comprehensive  review  of  the  character  and  progress 
primarily  of  the  investigative  work  of  the  Forest  Service,  and  to 
some  extent  also  of  the  various  States  and  forest  schools.  It  will 
aim  to  keep  all  of  the  men  engaged  upon  investigative  work  in 
touch  with  each  other.  It  will  give  them  the  fresh  results  of  each 
study  as  it  develops.  It  will  be  primarily  for  the  interest  and  benefit 
of  all  the  investigators  in  the  Service,  in  all  lines  of  its  work,  as  a 
cumulative  medium  for  interchange  of  scientific  data  and  ideas. 
It  is  designed  to  improve  investigative  methods,  avoid  duplication, 
and  stimulate  interest  in  research  work. 

The  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations  is  issued  at  intervals 
as  sufficient  material  accumulates.  It  is  designed  to  furnish  period¬ 
ically  a  resume  of  the  character  and  progress  of  the  investigative  work 
conducted  by  the  Forest  Service.  Each  issue  will  contain  brief 
accounts  of  the  progress  made  on  the  more  important  studies  whose 
completion  may  require  several  years,  and  more  detailed  reports  of 
minor  projects  whose  publication  in  separate  form  is  inadvisable. 
Similar  material  furnished  by  State  foresters  will  be  published  from 
time  to  time. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  Review  to  keep  all  of  the  men  engaged  upon 
investigative  work  in  touch  with  each  other.  The  fresh  result  of 
each  study  as  it  develops  will  be  reported,  and  a  medium  furnished 
for  the  interchange  of  scientific  data  and  ideas. 

The  Review  deals  largely  with  matters  on  which  the  Forest  Service 
can  not  yet  speak  authoritatively  and  the  publication  of  the  views 
presented  does  not  imply  that  the  Forest  Service  assumes  full 
responsibility  for  them. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  SCOPE  OF  INVESTIGATIVE  WORK. 

The  broad  scope  of  the  investigations  now  carried  on  by  the  Forest 
Service  called  for  an  organization  which  would  unify  the  various 
scientific  activities,  prevent  duplication,  coordinate  and  correlate 
all  studies,  and  consider  carefully  all  plans  to  make  sure  that  the 
most  important  problems  are  attacked  in  the  right  way  and  that 
all  the  available  information  and  facilities  of  the  Service  are  utilized. 
Such  an  organization  was  put  into  effect  in  January,  1912,  in  the 
form  of  district  and  central  investigative  committees.  The  creation 


1913. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  SCOPE. 


11 


of  these  committees  marks  a  progressive  step  in  the  development 
of  the  investigative  work  of  the  Service.  It  is  a  recognition  of 
the  old  principle  that  several  heads  are  better  than  one  in  perfecting 
plans  which  call  for  the  best  the  Service  has  in  scientific  attainments 
and  experience  in  research. 

The  plan  adopted  and  at  present  in  effect  is  in  general  as  follows: 

In  each  of  the  districts,  into  which  the  territory  occupied  by  the 
National  Forests  is  divided,  there  is  a  district  investigative  com¬ 
mittee,  consisting  usually  of  one  representative  of  each  of  the  major 
lines  of  investigation  conducted  in  the  district  and  one  supervisor 
of  technical  training.  Aside  from  the  supervisor  the  members  of  the 
district  committees,  as  far  as  practicable,  are  men  engaged  primarily 
upon  investigative  work. 

On  or  before  December  15  of  each  year  each  district  office  chief 
submits  to  the  district  committee  an  annual  program  of  investigative 
work,  under  the  direction  of  his  office,  this  program  covering: 

1.  Projects  completed  during  the  past  calendar  year. 

2.  Program  for  ensuing  calendar  year,  consisting  of  (a)  Incomplete 
projects  upon  which  work  will  be  continued;  ( b )  New  projects  pro¬ 
posed. 

The  programs  of  work  submitted  by  the  respective  officers  are 
then  reviewed  by  the  district  committee,  special  consideration  being 
given  to  (1)  the  value  of  each  project  under  way  or  proposed;  (2)  the 
scope  of  each  project  and  whether  it  should  be  limited  or  extended; 
and  (3)  possible  correlation  with  lines  of  investigative  work  in  progress 
or  proposed  by  other  offices. 

The  district  committee  then  prepares  a  program  of  investigative 
work  for  the  district  with  recommendations  regarding  the  policy  to 
be  followed.  This  program  is  then  carefully  considered  by  the  dis¬ 
trict  forester  and  office  chiefs  in  consultation  with  the  committee. 
The  annual  program  of  work  for  the  district  in  final  form  is  approved 
by  the  district  forester.  Copies  of  this  program  are  then  submitted 
to  the  Forester  as  a  part  of  the  annual  investigative  report  for  the 
district. 

The  complete  programs  submitted  by  the  districts  are  referred  to 
the  branch  chiefs  of  the  Forest  Service  in  Washington  who  review 
and  correlate  all  the  work  proposed  under  the  direction  of  each 
branch.  Each  branch  chief  then  submits  a  complete  program  of 
work  for  his  branch  to  the  central  investigative  committee,  which 
consists  of  three  members  representing  respectively  the  branches  of 
Silviculture,  Products,  and  Grazing.  The  branch  programs  are 
reviewed  by  the  central  investigative  committee,  which  prepares  an 
annual  program  of  work  and  outlines  the  investigative  policy  for 
the  entire  Service.  This  program  is  then  considered  by  the  For¬ 
ester  in  consultation  with  the  branch  chiefs  and  central  committee. 


12 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


When  finally  approved  the  necessary  administrative  action  is  taken 
by  each  branch  to  put  the  program  and  policy  into  effect. 

Projects  included  in  the  approved  program  are  assigned  by  the 
branch  chiefs  to  the  various  units  of  organization,  the  proper  exec¬ 
utive  officer  in  each  unit  assigning  the  project  to  the  member  of  the 
Service  who  will  be  in  charge  of  the  investigation.  The  officer  in 
charge  of  each  project  then  prepares — 

1.  A  preliminary  report  reviewing  the  results  of  other  investiga¬ 
tions  bearing  upon  the  subject  and  the  main  features  of  the  work 
which  should  be  undertaken. 

2.  A  working  plan  which  states  specifically  (a)  the  purpose  and 
scope  of  the  proposed  investigation,  (b)  the  methods  to  be  followed, 
and  (c)  the  estimated  cost. 

At  the  discretion  of  the  proper  executive  officer  the  preliminary 
report  and  working  plan  may  be  combined.  The  preliminary  re¬ 
port  and  working  plan  for  the  project  are  approved  by  the  branch 
chief  or  such  executive  in  the  branch  or  in  the  field  as  he  designates. 
The  work  is  then  carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  working  plan, 
which  can  not  be  departed  from  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
approving  officer. 

This  plan  of  control  applies  only  to  the  more  important  lines  of 
investigation  which  are  to  be  conducted  and  does  not  govern  minor 
investigations  or  observations  conducted  by  forest  officers  and  others 
in  connection  with  administrative  duties  where  the  use  of  additional 
funds  is  not  required.  Such  minor  investigations,  however,  are 
directed  so  far  as  practicable  by  the  district  committees  through 
the  office  chiefs  and  are  thus  correlated  with  the  regular  investi¬ 
gative  work. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  LINES  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

The  investigations  carried  on  by  the  Forest  Service  fall  naturally 
into  four  large  divisions:  Dendrology,  Grazing,  Products,  and 
Silviculture. 

DENDROLOGY. 

Dendrological  studies  aim  to  secure  information  concerning  the 
distinguishing  characters  and  the  geographic  distribution  of  North 
American  trees  and  shrubs.  They  also  include  investigations  of  the 
gross  and  microscopic  structure  of  the  woods  of  the  more  important 
North  American  and  foreign  timber  trees  as  means  for  identification. 
These  studies  are  carried  on  by  the  Dendrologist  and  his  assistants 
located  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  with  such  help  from  the  National 
Forest  officers  as  they  may  give  by  collecting  tree  specimens  and 
reporting  the  occurrence  of  species,  particularly  outside  of  their 
supposed  range.  One  important  purpose  of  dendrological  studies 


1913. 


DENDROLOGY. 


13 


is  the  preparation  for  publication  of  popular  works  describing  and 
illustrating  North  American  trees,  woods,  and  shrubs. 

In  accordance  with  the  chief  aim  of  these  dendrological  studies, 
they  are  divided  under  the  following  heads : 

FOREST-DISTRIBUTION  STUDIES. 

The  object  of  these  studies  is  to  determine  the  geographic  distri¬ 
bution  of  North  American  forest  trees  and  shrubs  and  their  dis¬ 
tinguishing  characters.  All  available  range  records  are  plotted  on 
folio  maps,  and  exact  references  are  preserved  of  the  source  of  this 
information,  which  is  obtained  largely  from  unpublished  records  of 
the  Service,  as  well  as  from  current  literature,  notes  collected  by 
examining  the  different  herbaria  in  the  United  States,  and  from 
data  accompanying  tree  specimens  collected  by  the  Dendrologist 
and  his  assistants  or  other  forest  officers  in  the  field.  These  folio 
maps,  revised  and  corrected  as  often  as  new  information  is  secured, 
are  available  for  reference,  and  from  them  distribution  data  are 
furnished  for  all  publications  of  the  Service  requiring  such  informa¬ 
tion,  particularly  the  series  of  works  being  issued  dealing  specially 
with  the  identification  and  range  of  North  American  trees  and  shrubs. 

A  part  of  these  studies  is  the  maintenance  of  a  forest  herbarium 
in  the  Washington  office.  Specimens  for  this  collection  are  obtained 
by  the  Dendrologist  and  his  assistants,  by  exchanges,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  National  Forest  officers  in  the  field.  This  material, 
systematically  classified  for  reference,  is  used  in  the  studies  of  forest 
floras,  in  the  identification  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  in  making  original 
illustrations  of  species  described. 

WOOD-STRUCTURE  STUDIES. 

The  object  of  these  studies  is  to  secure  reliable  information  for 
distinguishing  different  woods  by  their  structure.  There  are  many 
inferior  species  which  in  general  superficial  appearance  closely 
resemble  better  kinds  of  wood  and  for  which  they  are  often  sub¬ 
stituted.  It  is  of  particular  importance  for  the  benefit  of  wood 
consumers,  as  well  as  of  scientific  interest,  to  be  able  accurately  to 
identify  different  species  of  woods  by  their  gross  and  anatomical 
structure.  A  fully  equipped  laboratory  is  maintained  in  Washing¬ 
ton  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  microscopic  sections  of  woods 
which  are  used  as  a  reference  collection  in  the  identification  of  wood 
specimens  and  from  which  illustrations  are  made  for  publications 
issued  describing  the  distinguishing  characters  of  woods. 

The  number  of  foreign  woods  on  the  American  market  is  now 
very  great  and  is  gradually  increasing.  Both  the  dealers  in  imported 
timbers  and  those  who  use  them  are  in  need  of  and  seeking  reliable 


14 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


information  in  regard  to  these  new  and  unfamiliar  kinds.  Many 
different  species  of  foreign  woods  are  being  sold  in  this  country 
under  the  familiar  trade  names  of  well-known  sorts  which  makes  it 
necessary,  in  the  interest  of  wood  users,  to  determine  the  true 
identity  of  such  imported  material  and  the  source  from  which  it 
comes.  For  this  reason  it  became  necessary  to  extend  to  foreign 
woods  also  the  study  of  structure  as  a  means  of  identification.  Ameri¬ 
can  capital  is  now  being  invested  in  tropical  American  timber  lands, 
and  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  accurate  knowledge  regarding 
the  identity,  uses,  and  properties  of  tropical  woods. 

GRAZING. 

The  aim  of  the  grazing  investigations  is  to  secure  thorough  scien¬ 
tific  information  leading  to — 

1.  The  production  of  the  maximum  value  of  forage  crop. 

2.  The  utilization  of  timber  areas  and  areas  above  timber  line  by 
grazing  without  jeopardizing  the  chances  of  reforestation  and  water¬ 
shed  protection  further  than  is  justified  by  the  comparative  merits 
of  the  resources  at  stake. 

3.  Securing  the  greatest  grazing  efficiency  per  unit  area  in  utilizing 
the  forage  available  for  use. 

Any  increase  in  the  value  of  the  forage  crop  produced  must  be 
brought  about  by  (1)  successfully  seeding  range  to  cultivated  forage 
plants,  seed  of  which  can  be  obtained  at  a  cost  which  justifies  its 
use;  (2)  by  so  managing  the  grazing  of  the  range  as  to  secure  the 
natural  seeding  of  the  most  valuable  native  forage  plants  in  each 
locality  or  by  developing  these  valuable  native  species  under  culti¬ 
vation  so  that  seed  can  be  produced  at  a  cost  not  prohibitive  to 
distribution  on  the  range.  The  investigations  along  these  lines  fall 
under  three  headings : 

Artificial  reseeding. 

Natural  reseeding. 

Distribution  and  economic  importance  of  forage  plants. 

All  the  investigations  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  what 
portion  of  the  forage  crop  can  be  used  without  undue  injury  to 
forest  and  watershed  fall  under  the  one  heading : 

Forest  protection  (grazing). 

The  investigations  for  the  purpose  of  securing  data  which  will 
aid  in  getting  the  greatest  grazing  efficiency  out  of  the  forage  avail¬ 
able  for  use  cover  the  following  field : 

Methods  of  handling  stock. 

Development  of  stock-watering  places. 

Poisonous-plant  investigations. 

The  grazing  projects  comprise  both  intensive  experimental  studies 
and  studies  initiated  primarily  to  put  the  results  of  intensive  studies 


1913. 


GRAZING. 


15 


into  application  in  the  actual  management  of  the  range.  The 
intensive  investigations  are  concentrated  at  the  Utah  Experiment 
Station  on  the  Manti  National  Forest  and  on  several  Forests  where 
there  are  the  best  opportunities  for  studying  the  problems  most 
important,  at  present  the  Coconino,  Shasta,  and  Payette  Forests. 
Less  intensive  investigations  leading  to  better  control  of  grazing 
are  necessarily  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  administration  of 
the  range  on  a  number  of  Forests  where  particular  problems  arise. 

ARTIFICIAL  RESEEDING. 

The  aim  of  studies  in  artificial  reseeding  is  to  determine  means  of 
restoring  overgrazed  areas  and  improving  the  quality  of  the  forage 
by  artificial  reseeding  with  cultivated  plants.  But  a  comparatively 
small  acreage  of  National  Forest  range  is  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
the  forage  plants  for  which  seed  is  available,  due  to  excessive  altitude, 
poor  soil,  drought,  or  other  conditions.  In  order  to  carry  on  success¬ 
fully  artificial  reseeding  of  the  range,  it  is  important  to  find  out  (1) 
the  lands  where  seeding  to  cultivated  species  is  economically  possible 
as  determined  by  altitude,  exposure,  soil,  moisture,  and  native  vege¬ 
tation;  (2)  the  species  best  adapted  to  any  given  set  of  conditions; 

(3)  the  time  to  sow,  the  cultural  methods  which  should  be  used;  and 

(4)  the  necessary  protection  against  grazing.  In  addition,  the  most 
promising  native  species  are  being  tried  under  cultivation  experimen¬ 
tally  to  determine  the  possibility  of  their  use  in  artificial  reseeding. 

NATURAL  RESEEDING. 

Investigations  of  this  character  aim  to  determine  the  possibilities 
of  naturally  reseeding  depleted  lands  that  still  have  a  part  of  the 
native  vegetation,  and  to  devise  systems  of  grazing  management 
which  will  permit  of  the  regeneration  of  the  lands  without  a  loss  of 
forage  values.  These  investigations  are  both  intensive  and  extensive. 
The  intensive  studies  aim  to  find  out  the  important  forage  plants, 
determine  their  absolute  requirements  of  growth  and  reproduction, 
and  with  these  data  as  a  basis,  perfect  a  plan  of  grazing  management 
which  will  allow  the  plants  to  reseed  naturally  often  enough  to  keep 
the  range  in  maximum  condition — this  with  the  least  possible  loss  of 
forage.  The  extensive  studies  aim  to  put  the  data  collected  from  the 
intensive  studies  on  a  practical  basis  by  demonstration  application 
to  range  management. 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  ascertain  the  species  of  plants  which 
make  up  the  forage  crop  as  well  as  the  objectionable  and  worthless 
plants  on  each  Forest  range,  and  to  determine  the  forage  value, 


16 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


growth  requirements,  seasons  of  growth,  time  of  seed  maturity,  and 
class  of  stock  for  which  each  is  best  adapted.  With  a  thorough 
knowledge  on  these  points  regarding  the  plants  which  make  up  the 
forage  crop  on  each  Forest,  there  will  be  greater  possibility  of  devel¬ 
oping  a  plan  of  grazing  management  which  will  sufficiently  recognize 
the  growth  requirements  of  the  vegetation  to  maintain  a  maximum 
yield  without  unnecessary  loss  of  forage  by  nonuse. 

FOREST  PROTECTION  (GRAZING). 

The  aim  of  studies  along  this  line  is  to  collect  information  which 
will  result  in  a  decision  as  to  the  proper  relation  of  grazing  to  National 
Forest  management.  The  work  comprises  (1)  studies  to  determine 
the  effect,  both  detrimental  and  beneficial,  of  grazing  upon  tree  repro¬ 
duction  and  the  possibility  of  eliminating  damage  or  increasing  the 
beneficial  effect  by  changes  in  grazing  management;  (2)  studies  to 
determine  the  influence  of  grazing  upon  “run-off”  and  erosion;  (3) 
studies  to  determine  the  influence  of  grazing  as  a  protection  against 
fire.  The  projects  under  (1)  and  (2)  must  necessarily  be  intensive 
and  will  be  carried  on  at  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  or  on  a  few 
selected  Forests. 


METHODS  OF  HANDLING  STOCK. 

Investigations  of  this  character  aim  at  eliminating,  so  far  as  prac¬ 
ticable,  any  waste  of  forage  in  utilization  of  the  range  by  reducing 
to  a  minimum  the  loss  of  forage  due  to  trampling  and  by  reducing 
the  damage  that  comes  from  interfering  with  natural  processes  of 
revegetation  and  damage  to  tree  growth  and  watersheds.  The  work 
covers  studies  to  determine:  The  most  satisfactory  number  of  sheep 
to  be  run  in  one  band,  considering  the  welfare  of  the  range  and  the 
sheep  and  the  interests  of  the  sheep  owner;  the  best  method  of  herd¬ 
ing  or  handling,  salting,  bedding,  and  watering  the  sheep;  methods 
of  handling  cattle,  and  other  grazing  animals  (swine,  horses,  goats). 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  STOCK- WATERING  PLACES. 

Without  an  adequate  distribution  of  water  for  the  stock  on  the 
range,  it  is  frequently  impracticable  to  adopt  a  system  of  grazing 
management  which  will  place  on  a  range  the  class  of  stock  to  which  it 
is  best  adapted  at  the  time  when  it  should  be  utilized,  and  to  plan 
the  handling  of  the  stock  so  as  to  secure  complete  utilization  without 
waste  of  forage.  The  studies  along  this  line  aim  to  secure  informa¬ 
tion  upon  which  to  base  a  decision  as  to  the  necessary  distribution 
and  capacity  of  watering  places  under  a  given  set  of  topographic, 
climatic,  and  forage  conditions;  and  how  best  to  develop  watering 
places  from  different  sources  of  water  supply. 


1913. 


PRODUCTS. 


17 


POISONOUS  PLANT  INVESTIGATIONS. 

The  scientific  data  on  poisonous  plants  are  very  largely  collected 
by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  The  Forest  Service  is  cooperating 
in  working  out  the  abundance,  distribution,  and  seasons  of  growth 
in  various  localities  of  the  species  of  plants  poisonous  to  stock. 

PRODUCTS. 

The  aim  of  the  investigations  conducted  by  Products  is  to  secure 
authentic  information  regarding  the  properties  and  suitability  for 
different  purposes  of  various  species  and  kinds  of  forest  products. 
Such  information  is  essential  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  methods 
at  present  in  use  in  the  production  and  utilization  of  forest  products, 
and  is  necessary  for  the  most  economical  management  of  the  National 
Forests. 

In  accordance  with  the  general  policy  of  centralizing  the  investi¬ 
gative  work  at  specific  points,  practically  all  of  the  products  studies 
are  conducted  at  a  few  definite  stations.  The  Forest  Products 
Laboratory  at  Madison,  Wis.,  is  the  headquarters  at  which  is  con¬ 
ducted  the  great  bulk  of  the  work.  This  laboratory,  which  is  main¬ 
tained  in  cooperation  with  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  is  well 
equipped  for  conducting  most  of  the  lines  of  work  discussed  later. 
Laboratories  are  also  maintained  at  Wausau,  Wis.,  where  the  ground- 
wood  pulp  investigations  are  all  conducted,  and  at  Seattle,  Wash., 
where  certain  tests  on  the  mechanical  properties  of  woods  are  car¬ 
ried  on.  District  stations  are  also  permanently  established  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and  Portland,  Oreg.,  and 
certain  more  general  investigations  are  conducted  from  these  points. 

The  investigative  work  falls  into  four  major  divisions,  with  a 
number  of  subdivisions,  as  follows: 

A.  Mechanical  and  Physical  Properties  and  Structure  of  Wood*. 

Mechanical  properties. 

Tests  on  small  specimens  free  from  defects. 

Tests  on  structural  timbers. 

Tests  on  manufactured  articles. 

Effect  of  preservative  treatment,  moisture,  etc. 

Physical  properties. 

Fundamental  properties. 

Conditioning  experiments. 

General. 

Relation  of  structure  to  properties. 

B.  Wood  Preservation. 

Preservatives. 

General. 

Physical  and  chemical  properties. 

Toxicity. 

Effect  on  strength  of  wood. 

Inflammability. 

Ease  of  injection  into  wood. 

65603°— 13 - 2 


18 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


B.  Wood  Preservation — Continued. 

Processes. 

Commercially  established . 

New  or  proposed. 

Effect  of  varying  conditions  during  treatment. 

Suitability  of  species. 

Resistance  to  impregnation  with  preservatives. 

Resistance  to  decay.  , 

Preparation  for  treatment. 

Cooperative  field  work  and  service  tests. 

C.  Derived  Products. 

Pulp  and  paper. 

Mechanical  or  grinding  processes. 

Chemical  processes. 

Wood  distillation. 

Hardwoods. 

Resinous  woods. 

Naval  stores,  or  turpentine  and  rosin. 

Miscellaneous. 

Production  of  ethyl  alcohol. 

Production  of  tannins. 

Production  of  gas  from  wood  waste. 

Production  of  essential  oils  from  leaves,  twigs,  etc. 

Chemical  composition  of  various  woods. 

D.  Statistical  Studies. 

Annual  production  of  forest  products. 

Study  of  uses  of  woods  (by  States,  industries,  and  species). 

Lumber  prices. 

Miscellaneous. 

MECHANICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

These  tests  are  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  accumulating  reliable 
information  on  the  mechanical  properties  of  various  species  and 
forms  of  timber.  The  results  are  of  value  to  all  engineers,  manu- 
facturers,  and  other  users  of  wood  in  enabling  them  to  employ  the 
various  species  and  forms  most  advantageously,  and  frequently  to 
substitute  less  well-known  species  for  those  which  have  been  com¬ 
monly  used  but  are  now  becoming  scarce.  The  nature  of  the  investi¬ 
gations  is  such  that  they  may  be  classified  under  the  following 
headings: 

Tests  on  Small  Specimens  Free  from  Defects. 

The  purpose  and  general  nature  of  these  investigations  are  as 
follows: 

(a)  To  establish  scales  by  means  of  which  it  will  be  possible  to  com¬ 
pare  directly  the  bending  strength,  compressive  strength,  shearing, 
stiffness,  toughness,  hardness,  cleavability,  coefficient  of  shrinkage, 
and  specific  gravity  or  dry  weight  of  the  commercial  timbers  of  the 
United  States.  Such  scales  will  make  it  easier  for  users  to  select  sub¬ 
stitutes  for  species  which  are  becoming  scarce. 


1913. 


PRODUCTS. 


19 


( b )  To  correlate  the  properties  listed  above  with  the  rate  of  growth, 
the  position  of  the  specimen  in  the  tree,  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  tree,  and  the  locality  and  conditions  under  which  the  tree  grew. 
Such  analyses  are  primarily  for  the  use  of  a  forester  if  the  conditions 
in  this  country  ever  permit  the  selection  of  material  in  the  woods 
with  respect  to  its  suitability  for  certain  specific  purposes. 

Tests  on  Structural  Timbers. 

The  purpose  of  these  investigations  is  as  follows : 

(a)  To  supply  engineers  and  architects  with  data  on  which  to 
base  moduli  for  use  in  the  design  of  structures  built  of  timber. 

(b)  To  correlate  the  results  of  the  tests  with  the  physical  charac¬ 
teristics  of  the  timber  and  with  the  character  and  location  of  defects 
in  order  to  establish  a  more  correct  basis  for  the  grading  of  large 
timbers  according  to  their  mechanical  properties. 

(c)  To  establish  a  relation  between  results  obtained  from  large 
timbers  containing  defects  and  those  obtained  from  small  specimens 
free  from  defects,  so  that  the  strength  of  structural  timbers  may  be 
estimated  from  tests  on  small  pieces. 

Tests  on  Manufactured  Articles. 

This  series  includes  tests  on  axles,  spokes,  cross-arms,  poles,  and 
other  manufactured  articles.  They  constitute,  however,  a  minor 
part  of  the  investigative  work  and  are  made  primarily  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  demonstrating  the  fitness  of  a  substitute  species  or  a  lower 
grade  of  material  for  specific  uses. 

Effect  of  Preservative  Treatments,  Moisture,  Etc. 

This  series  of  tests  is  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  effect  of  mois¬ 
ture,  preservative  treatments,  methods  of  seasoning,  fireproofing, 
etc.,  upon  the  mechanical  properties  of  wood.  Both  structural  forms 
and  small  specimens  free  from  defects  are  used  in  the  various  studies, 
the  form  and  character  of  the  specimens  in  each  case  being  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  nature  of  the  problem. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  outline  of  the  purpose  and  scope  of  the 
investigations  on  the  mechanical  properties  it  can  readily  be  seen 
that  they  are  closely  connected  with  similar  investigations  on  the 
physical  properties  of  wood.  The  work  falls  into  the  following 
divisions : 

Fundamental  Properties. 

A  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  physical  properties  of  wood  in 
general  and  of  the  various  species  individually  is  essential  to  the 
most  efficient  utilization  of  the  material.  Not  only  is  such  knowledge 


20  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  Vol.  I, 

of  prime  importance  in  connection  with  studies  on  the  structural  and 
mechanical  properties,  but  it  is  especially  necessary  for  the  most 
successful  conducting  of  investigations  relating  to  wood  preservation 
and  some  other  wood-using  industries.  The  several  lines  of  inves¬ 
tigation  cover  studies  of  the  thermal  properties,  penetrability  to 
liquids  and  gases,  hygroscopicity,  density  of  wood  substance,  etc. 

Conditioning  Experiments. 

These  experiments  relate  primarily  to  the  application  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  structure,  mechanical  properties,  and  fundamental 
physical  properties  of  wood  in  its  preparation  and  handling  for 
commercial  uses,  and  consist  largely  of  investigations  into  seasoning 
and  drying.  The  results  will  be  of  value  to  all  engaged  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  and  utilization  of  wood  products,  such  as  lumber,  structural 
timber,  ties,  poles,  wagons  and  vehicles,  implements,  and  furniture. 
In  the  manufacture  and  handling  of  such  products  much  money  and 
time  are  spent  in  seasoning  the  wood,  and  often  a  considerable  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  raw  material  is  lost  or  damaged  as  a  result  of  improper 
seasoning.  Information  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  drying 
lumber  is  needed  in  order  to  improve  these  conditions.  The  investi¬ 
gations  logically  fall  into  three  divisions,  as  follows : 

(a)  Air  seasoning .- — The  importance  of  this  work  is  evident  when 
it  is  considered  that  it  affects  the  entire  lumbering  and  w’ood-manu- 
facturing  industries.  Not  only  is  seasoning  essential  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  and  utilization  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  products,  but 
much  material  inadvertently  becomes  seasoned  as  a  result  of  enforced 
storage  of  raw  material  or  finished  product.  Furthermore,  it  is 
necessary  in  practically  all  cases  to  air  season  material  prior  to  kiln 
drying  by  the  methods  in  general  commercial  use.  In  spite  of  the 
importance  of  the  subject,  however,  and  the  well-known  advantages 
of  properly  seasoned  timber,  such  as  increased  strength,  durability, 
and  penetrability  to  liquids,  much  material  is  annually  damaged  by 
checking,  decay,  sap  staining,  and  other  agencies,  with  a  corre¬ 
sponding  financial  loss. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  investigations  to  assist  in  bettering  these 
conditions  by  securing  data  on  the  proper  methods  of  piling  and  the 
time  required  to  air  season  various  forms  and  species  in  various 
localities.  The  results  are  of  especial  value  to  the  Forest  Service  in 
the  work  under  way  on  wood  preservation,  kiln  drying,  and  mechanical 
properties  of  wood. 

(b)  Kiln  drying. — The  time  required  to  air  season  wood  properly  is 
so  great  that  artificial  methods  of  drying  are  being  almost  universally 
applied.  Unfortunately,  however,  methods  do  not  yet  permit  of  wood 
being  kiln  dried  without  first  being  seasoned  at  least  to  a  partial 
extent.  The  big  problem  which  confronts  the  users  of  wood  is  to 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  II. 


Fig.  1  .—Machines  for  Testing  the  Mechanical  Properties  of  Woods,  Forest 

Products  Laboratory. 


Fig.  2.— Equipment  for  Wood  Preservation  Experiments,  Forest  Products 

Laboratory. 


1913. 


PRODUCTS. 


21 


season  it  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  All  methods  at  present  in 
use  are  more  or  less  imperfect,  and  it  is  conservatively  estimated 
that  at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  material  dried  in  kilns  is  ruined  or 
greatly  lowered  in  value  by  excessive  checking,  warping,  honey¬ 
combing,  etc.  To  study  the  fundamental  principles  of  drying  in 
kilns  with  a  view  to  finding  means  of  overcoming  the  present  diffi¬ 
culties  is  one  of  the  aims  of  these  investigations. 

(c)  High  temperature  and  pressure  treatments. — Very  little  is  known 
concerning  the  behavior  of  wood  when  subjected  to  high  temper¬ 
atures  and  pressures  or  to  various  conditions  of  the  surrounding 
medium.  Preliminary  experiments  indicate  that  certain  of  the  physi¬ 
cal  and  mechanical  properties,  such  as  density,  strength,  hardness, 
and  hygroscopicity,  can  be  altered  by  such  treatments.  The  aim  of 
these  investigations  is  to  find  methods  of  altering  the  properties  of 
the  less  valuable  woods  so  as  to  increase  their  field  of  use. 

General  Studies. 

These  investigations  are  so  varied  in  nature  that  they  can  not  be 
classified  under  any  specific  heading. 

RELATION  OF  STRUCTURE  TO  PROPERTIES. 

These  investigations  aim  to  find  the  effect  of  different  kinds  of 
structure  on  the  mechanical  and  physical  properties  of  woods  and 
to  show  the  structure  best  adapted  for  certain  specific  uses.  The 
work  may  lead  to  several  methods  of  grouping,  based  on  the  use 
intended  and  independent  of  the  botanical  classification.  The  study 
of  wood  elements  and  fibers  as  found  in  pulp  forms  an  important 
phase  of  the  work,  as  does  also  the  effect  of  structure  on  the  pene¬ 
trance  of  preservatives. 

WOOD  PRESERVATION. 

These  investigations  deal  with  the  protection  or  preservation  of 
wood  from  destruction  by  decay,  fire,  abrasion,  and  insects.  Of 
these,  decay  is  by  far  the  most  important,  and  it  is  with  this  that 
the  investigations  are  mostly  concerned. 

The  importance  of  the  investigations  are  illustrated  by  the  fact 
that  over  100,000,000  cubic  feet  of  wood  were  treated  in  1910  with 
preservatives  to  protect  them  from  decay,  which  is  an  increase  of 
over  500  per  cent  of  that  treated  during  1904.  Although  it  can  be 
appreciated  at  once  that  the  industry  is  rapidly  growing  and  becom¬ 
ing  established  in  this  country,  there  are  still  many  points  on  which 
further  and  more  definite  information  is  required  in  order  that  the 
most  efficient  methods  may  be  employed.  The  nature  of  the 
investigations  can  best  be  discussed  separately  under  the  following 
classifications : 


22 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


Preservatives. 

GENERAL. 

The  cost  of  preservatives  amounts  to  from  50  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
total  cost  of  treatment,  and  the  ultimate  success  of  any  treatment  is 
largely  dependent  upon  the  preservative  used.  Many  substances 
have  been  tried  as  preservatives,  and  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to 
what  preservative  will  give  the  greatest  efficiency  under  different 
conditions. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  work  to  secure  authentic  information  on 
the  relative  efficiency  of  various  preservatives  which  are  now  being 
used  commercially  or  which  give  promise  of  success  in  preventing 
decay.  The  work  may  be  classed  into  investigations  of  oils,  metallic 
salts,  and  other  materials,  their  efficiency  depending  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  upon  the  following  points : 

PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES. 

This  is  the  first  step  in  studying  the  efficiency  of  any  preservative. 
It  may  frequently  happen  that  a  determination  of  these  properties  is 
immediately  sufficient  to  prove  the  product  unsatisfactory. 

TOXICITY. 

The  success  of  many  preservatives  depends  entirely  upon  their 
antiseptic  or  toxic  properties,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  their  poisonous 
effect  upon  decay-producing  organisms,  insects,  or  marine  borers. 
This  is  true  of  all  the  metallic  salts  and  in  a  large  measure  of  many 
of  the  other  preservatives  used. 

EFFECT  ON  STRENGTH  OF  WOOD. 

However  efficient  a  preservative  may  be  in  retarding  decay,  it  is 
evidently  essential  for  the  great  majority  of  cases  that  the  strength 
of  wood  should  not  be  seriously  affected  by  its  injection. 

INFLAMMABILITY. 

There  are  many  instances  where  a  preservative  might  be  advan¬ 
tageously  used  were  it  not  for  the  danger  of  increasing  the  inflamma¬ 
bility  of  the  timber.  This  is  especially  true  in  such  cases  as  mine 
timbers,  where  the  wet  conditions  are  frequently  adverse  to  the  use 
of  metallic  salts  and  where  the  use  of  creosote  or  other  oils  would  be 
effective  were  it  not  for  the  possible  increased  danger  from  fire. 
Furthermore,  the  protection  of  wood  against  fire  is  an  important  field 
in  the  wood-preservation  work,  since  more  stringent  rules  are  every¬ 
where  being  put  into  effect  regarding  the  use  of  inflammable  material 
in  buildings. 

EASE  OF  INJECTION  INTO  WOOD. 

This  is  an  important  aspect  in  determining  the  efficiency  of  a  pre¬ 
servative,  since  it  is  evident  that  its  efficiency  is  impaired  if  it  can 
not  be  forced  into  the  wood  with  comparative  ease. 


1913. 


PRODUCTS. 


23 


Processes. 

Closely  related  to  the  work  on  preservatives  is  the  investigative 
work  on  processes.  However  efficient  a  preservative  may  be  in 
itself,  it  is  important  that  it  be  injected  into  the  wood  in  the  most 
efficient  and  economical  manner.  The  work  covers  investigations  of 
the  relative  efficiency  of  the  various  processes  in  commercial  use,  of 
proposed  or  new  processes,  and  of  the  effect  of  varying  conditions 
during  treatment.  The  intention  is  to  determine  the  effect  of  each 
step  in  various  established  and  proposed  processes  upon  the  impreg¬ 
nation  of  the  wood  and  its  condition  after  treatment. 

Suitability  of  Species. 

Closely  related  to  the  work  on  preservatives  and  processes  is  the 
determination  of  the  suitability  of  various  species  for  treatment. 
One  of  the  chief  aims  of  such  work  is  to  increase  the  use  of  the  cheaper 
and  less  durable  woods,  of  which  there  is  a  plentiful  supply,  in  place 
of  the  more  costly  and  naturally  durable  woods  which  are  more 
generally  used.  Information  on  the  relative  permeability  of  various 
woods  will  be  of  value  to  the  consumer  in  selecting  his  material  and 
of  special  value  to  the  Forest  Service  in  disposing  of  many  species  on 
the  National  Forests  for  which  at  present  there  is  no  great  demand. 
The  work  involves  investigations  to  determine  the  resistance  of  woods 
to  impregnation  with  preservatives,  their  relative  resistance  to 
decay,  and  the  methods  necessary  to  satisfactorily  prepare  them  for 
treatment. 

Cooperative  Field  Work  and  Service  Tests. 

Owing  to  the  comparatively  recent  development  of  wood  preserva¬ 
tion  in  this  country,  one  portion  of  the  work  on  this  subject  consists 
of  cooperative  field  work  and  of  service  tests.  The  final  test  of  any 
preservative  or  process  applied  to  any  species  or  form  of  material  is  to 
place  such  material  under  actual  conditions  of  service  and  note  the 
results. 

PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  WOOD,  BARK,  LEAVES,  AND  THE  GROWING 

TIMBER. 

The  investigations  on  derived  products  are  divided  according  to 
the  product  under  consideration,  as  follows: 

Pulp  and  Paper. 

The  manufacture  of  pulp  and  paper  is  a  well-established  industry 
which  uses  wood  and  rags  as  raw  material  and  whose  products  are  in 
large  demand.  Its  magnitude  as  a  wood-using  industry  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  in  1909  over  4,000,000  cords  of  wood  were  consumed. 
The  cost  for  this  wood  alone  was  over  $33,000,000.  The  annual 


24  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  Vol.  I. 

consumption  of  wood  for  pulp  products  increased  over  100  per  cent 
from  1900  to  1909,  while  its  cost  increased  over  240  percent.  Since 
60  per  cent  of  the  wood  used  for  pulp  in  1909  was  spruce  and  15  per 
cent  hemlock,  the  importance  of  investigating  the  value  for  pulp  of 
species  at  present  little  used  and  of  various  forms  of  wood  waste  is 
evident.  Studies  of  methods  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  established 
processes  are  also  needed. 

The  pulp  investigations  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

MECHANICAL  OR  GRINDING  PROCESSES. 

So  far  as  the  immediate  needs  of  the  paper  trade  are  concerned, 
this  work  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Much  of  the  cheaper  paper, 
such  as  news  print,  is  made  from  pulp  produced  in  this  way.  At  the 
present  time  practically  the  entire  supply  of  ground-wood  pulp  is 
produced  from  spruce,  and  the  diminishing  supply  and  increasing 
price  of  this  species  makes  the  search  for  satisfactory  substitutes  of 
live  interest  to  pulp  manufacturers.  A  study  of  the  details  of  the 
processes  used  in  making  different  kinds  of  pulp  is  also  carried  on  with 
a  view  to  determining  the  most  efficient  methods  of  production. 

CHEMICAL  PROCESSES. 

It  is  by  chemical  processes  that  pulp  for  use  in  the  finer  and  stronger 
grades  of  paper  is  produced,  and  although  a  greater  variety  of  woods 
are  used  than  for  the  ground-wood  pulp  the  fundamental  problem 
confronting  the  industry  here  also  is  the  supply  of  raw  material.  In 
1909  over  85  per  cent  of  the  wood  consumed  consisted  of  spruce, 
hemlock,  poplar,  and  balsam,  and  it  is  the  prime  aim  of  the  investi¬ 
gative  work  to  determine  the  relative  suitability  of  other  available 
species  and  forms  of  material. 

In  studying  the  suitability  of  the  various  woods,  their  adaptability 
for  the  different  established  processes  must  be  considered.  This 
involves  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  various  processes  and  of  the 
effect  of  varying  certain  conditions  on  the  final  product.  The  work 
on  species  and  processes,  therefore,  is  closely  connected  and  may  be 
classified  into: 

(a)  Studies  with  the  soda  process,  which  is  a  well-established 
process  suited  for  either  deciduous  or  highly  resinous  woods; 

( b )  Studies  with  the  sulphite  process,  which  is  the  process  now 
most  extensively  used  in  this  country  and  is  especially  adapted  for 
the  not  too  resinous  conifers  and  for  the  production  of  pulps  where  a 
very  white  natural  color  is  desired; 

(c)  Studies  with  the  sulphate  process,  which,  although  used  only 
to  a  limited  extent  in  this  country  at  present,  gives  promise  of  be¬ 
coming  of  more  importance  especially  for  the  manufacture  of  pulps 
from  the  southern  pines  and  more  resinous  woods. 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  III. 


Fig.  1  .—Paper  Machine,  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 


Fig.  2.  Equipment  for  Analyzing  and  Testing  Preservatives,  Turpentine,  Prod¬ 
ucts  of  Wood  Distillation,  etc.,  Forest  Products  Laboratory. 


1913. 


PRODUCTS. 


25 


Wood  Distillation. 

Wood  distillation  is  already  a  fairly  well-established  industry,  con¬ 
sisting  of  two  distinct  branches — hardwood  distillation  and  resinous 
wood  distillation.  Both  branches  depend  on  waste  wood  to  a 
large  extent  for  raw  material  so  that  the  investigations  consist  (1)  of 
a  study  of  new  species  which  may  be  found  suitable;  (2)  of  the 
development  of  more  efficient  methods  of  production  and  refining; 
and  (3)  of  the  determination  of  the  properties  of  distillation  products 
not  readily  marketable  at  present. 

The  nature  of  the  two  branches  of  the  work  is  as  follows : 

HARDWOODS. 

This  is  an  established  industry  with  fairly  well-standardized  pro¬ 
cesses.  Two  of  the  main  products — acetate  of  lime  and  wood  alco¬ 
hol — are  regularly  quoted  market  articles.  The  third,  charcoal,  is 
usually  sold  to  iron  furnaces  or  in  other  local  markets  for  fuel.  In 
many  of  the  commercial  plants  wood  cut  especially  for  the  purpose  is 
used,  while  others  are  operated  on  sawmill  waste,  so  that  only  that 
part  of  the  tree  not  suitable  for  lumber  is  used  for  distillation.  Small¬ 
sized  material,  such  as  sawdust  and  shavings,  is  not  practicable,  since 
the  charcoal  produced  is  so  fine  that  it  is  difficult  to  cool  and  handle, 
and  the  small  size  of  the  material  makes  it  such  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat  that  it  is  impossible  to  char  it  satisfactorily  in  the  ordinary  forms 
of  apparatus. 

The  species  most  extensively  used  in  commercial  work  are  birch, 
beech,  and  maple.  The  amount  of  valuable  products  that  can  be  ob¬ 
tained  from  these  woods  is  comparatively  well  known,  but  very  little 
information  is  available  for  other  species.  The  purpose  of  the 
investigations,  therefore,  is  primarily  to  determine  the  suitability  of 
other  species  for  distillation  purposes. 

RESINOUS  WOODS. 

This  is  a  comparatively  recent  industry  in  this  country  for  which 
standard  methods  have  not  yet  been  developed.  Some  of  the 
products  also  have  not  yet  become  standard  market  articles.  The 
investigations  cover  the  following  fields: 

(a)  Destructive  distillation. — In  selecting  material  for  this  purpose 
the  governing  factor  is  the  amount  of  resin  or  pitch  present  in  the 
wood,  and  since  this  resin  content  is  variable  for  different  trees  of 
the  same  species,  and  even  in  different  parts  of  the  same  tree,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  select  the  wood  in  order  to  obtain  a  material 
sufficiently  rich  for  distillation.  The  largest  portion  of  material  at 
present  used  consists  of  “lightwood  ”  from  longleaf  pine.  Stump 
wood  from  the  same  species  has  been  used  also  to  some  extent;  but  the 


26 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vol.  I. 


“lightwood”  is  commonly  used,  since  the  stump  wood  is  more  diffi¬ 
cult  to  collect  and  prepare  for  distillation. 

(b)  Steam  distillation. — There  is  another  form  of  material,  such  as 
the  average  run  of  sawmill  waste,  sawdust,  and  slabs  from  longleaf 
pine,  which  on  account  of  its  comparatively  small  resin  content  can 
not  be  used  economically  for  destructive  distillation,  and  apparently 
the  only  process  which  is  applicable  to  this  class  of  material  is  the 
simple  and  more  rapid  steam-distillation  process,  which  recovers  only 
the  volatile  oils  originally  present  as  such  in  the  wood. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  these  investigations  (1)  to  standardize  meth¬ 
ods  of  distillation  for  various  species  and  classes  of  material  and  (2) 
to  determine  the  quality  and  value  of  the  various  products  which 
mav  be  secured. 

(c)  Extraction  methods. — In  the  distillation  of  resinous  woods  one 
of  the  most  valuable  products — rosin — is  not  secured.  Methods  have 
been  developed  for  securing  this  product  by  extraction  from  the  wood 
with  chemicals,  and  these  investigations  deal  with  a  study  of  such 
methods. 

Naval  Stores  or  Turpentine  and  Rosin. 

The  naval-stores  industry  has  long  been  established  in  this  coun¬ 
try.  The  general  method  of  procedure  is  to  tap  the  resinous  long- 
leaf  pine  trees  and  collect  the  gum,  which  is  subsequently  distilled 
and  refined  into  the  two  major  products — turpentine  and  rosin. 
Under  existing  methods  of  operations  there  is  considerable  loss  of 
possible  products  owing  to  unscientific  methods  of  tapping  the  trees 
and  collecting  the  gum,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  believed  that 
other  species  than  longleaf  pine  might  prove  of  value  for  this  pur¬ 
pose.  The  study  of  new  species  and  the  refinement  of  operations 
is  the  main  purpose  of  the  investigatrv  e  work. 

Miscellaneous. 

Work  under  this  heading  covers  investigations  which  are  not  so 
broad  in  scope  as  the  foregoing.  They  deal  primarily  with  the  uti¬ 
lization  by  transformation  into  other  products  of  waste  incident  to 
mill  operations  and  existing  in  the  forests,  and  also  include  studies 
which  do  not  deal  primarily  with  the  utilization  of  waste,  but  are 
nevertheless  of  value  in  furthering  this  work.  Investigations  at 
present  under  way  deal  with  the  production  of  ethyl  alcohol,  tannins, 
gas,  essential  oils  from  leaves  and  twigs,  and  the  chemical  composition 
of  various  woods. 

STATISTICAL  STUDIES. 

This  work  deals  with  the  collection  and  compilation  of  statistics 
on  the  amounts,  prices,  sources,  and  uses  of  various  forest  products 
produced  annually  and  with  studies  to  show  where  and  how  the  waste 


11)13. 


SILVICULTURE. 


27 


occurs  and  how  it  may  be  reduced.  The  work  is  of  importance  (1) 
to  the  Forest  Service  in  so  far  as  it  assists  in  determining  the  lines 
of  work  which  require  investigations,  and  (2)  to  the  Forest  Service 
and  users  of  wood  at  large  in  furnishing  information  regarding  the 
consumption  and  utilization  of  various  woods  and  wooden  products 
in  different  sections  of  the  country. 

The  work  falls  into  the  following  divisions : 

Annual  Production  of  Forest  Products. 

This  work  deals  with  the  collection  of  statistics  showing  the  annual 
production  of  the  major  forest  products  and  is  of  importance  in  giv¬ 
ing  a  reliable  yearly  record  of  the  extent  and  changes  in  the  demand 
upon  the  forests  for  each  kind  of  wood  by  States. 

Uses  of  Woods  and  the  Manufacture  of  Wooden  Products. 

The  purpose  of  these  investigations  is  to  show  the  annual  consump¬ 
tion  of  wood  by  the  wood-using  industries  ai  d  to  determine  the  con¬ 
ditions  governing  its  use  and  the  processes  of  manufacture.  The  part 
each  species  plays  in  wood  economics  is  thus  traced  from  the  saw¬ 
mill  to  the  finished  product.  The  information  secured  is  of  special 
value  to  the  Government  and  other  owners  of  timber,  since  it  points 
out  the  best  markets  for  each  kind  of  wood.  It  is  also  of  value  to 
the  manufacturer  in  enabling  him  to  determine  where  he  can  best 
buy  the  material  which  he  requires. 

Lumber  Prices. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  secure  periodically  wholesale  prices 
of  lumber  both  at  the  mills  and  principal  markets.  The  informa¬ 
tion  has  two  main  applications: 

1.  It  provides  a  continuous  statistical  record  of  the  prices  of  the 
various  woods  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

2.  It  determines  the  part  which  freight  and  selling  charges  play 
in  determining  the  wholesale  price  of  the  different  grades. 

Miscellaneous. 

This  covers  minor  work  of  a  statistical  nature,  such  as  the  collection 
of  statistics  on  the  quantity  of  wood  preservatives  annually  con¬ 
sumed  and  the  extent  of  the  substitution  of  other  materials  for  wood. 

SILVICULTURE. 

The  aim  of  the  silvicultural  investigations  is  to  secure  a  thorough 
.  knowledge  of  the  silvical  characteristics  and  requirements  of  all  for¬ 
est  trees,  a  solid  scientific  basis  for  the  silvicultural  handling  of 
existing  forests,  and  for  the  establishment  of  new  forests  to  secure 
the  most  economic  use  of  the  timber  and  other  products  of  the  forest 


28 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vol.  I. 


and  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  its  indirect  benefits.  The  silvicul¬ 
tural  investigations  are  necessarily  conducted  along  two  distinct 
lines,  as  experimental  studies  and  general  studies. 

The  experimental  work  as  now  conducted  at  the  Forest  experi¬ 
ment  stations  is  by  far  the  most  important.  For  the  last  few  years 
it  has  been  felt  that  only  by  well-ordered  experiments  can  empirical 
procedure  be  replaced  bv  truly  scientific  procedure.  The  experi¬ 
mental  work  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  the  seven  Forest  experiment 
stations  of  the  Forest  Service:  the  Fremont  Station  on  the  Pike 
National  Forest  near  Pikes  Peak  in  Colorado;  the  Wagon  Wheel  Gap 
Station  on  the  Rio  Grande  National  Forest,  also  in  Colorado;  the 
Fort  Valley  Station  near  Flagstaff,  Ariz.,  and  its  substations;  the 
Priest  River  Station  on  the  Kaniksu  National  Forest  in  Idaho;  the 
Feather  River  Station  on  the  Plumas  National  Forest  in  California; 
the  Utah  Station  on  the  Manti  National  Forest  in  Utah,  and  at  the 
Arlington  Farm  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  although  a  large  number  of 
experiments  are  conducted  on  various  Forests  and  in  cooperation 
with  several  States  on  State  lands. 

General  studies  which  can  not  be  confined  to  one  locality,  such  as 
regional  or  tree  studies,  are  necessarily  made  where  favorable  condi¬ 
tions  exist  for  carrying  them  on. 

FOREST  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 

The  Forest  experiment  stations  are  the  outgrowth  of  the  need  for 
scientific  information  which  can  be  secured  only  in  a  systematic 
manner  and  by  intensive  methods  of  study.  The  Forest  experiment 
station  idea  is  not  a  new  one;  it  has  already  been  developed  exten¬ 
sively  in  several  European  countries.  The  value  of  the  systematic 
organization  of  Forest  research  work  was  officially  recognized  in  Ger¬ 
many  in  1870,  when  the  first  Forest  experiment  station  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  Baden,  in  connection  with  the  Polytechnikum  at  Carlsruhe. 
Half  a  dozen  of  the  German  States  followed  the  example,  instituting 
main  experiment  stations  in  connection  with  forest  schools,  and 
branches  in  various  forest  districts.  The  cost  to  the  German  Govern¬ 
ment  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  $30,000  annually.  The  work  done  is 
intensely  scientific,  and  the  policy  of  forest  experiment  stations  is 
steadily  growing  in  favor. 

In  India,  where  the  work  of  research  has  been  neglected  for  a  long 
time,  the  need  for  scientific  investigation  has  now  been  recognized  by 
the  Government,  and  an  Imperial  Forest  Research  Institute  and 
College  has  been  created  at  Dehra  Dun,  with  a  faculty  chosen  from 
the  Imperial  Forest  Service. 

In  the  United  States  considerable  research  work  has  been  done  in 
connection  with  forest  problems.  The  beginning  of  real  investiga¬ 
tive  work  in  silviculture,  however,  must  date  from  the  establishment 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  IV 


Rear  View  of  Fort  Valley  Experiment  Station  Grounds,  with  San  Francisco  Mountains  in  the  Distance.  To  the 

Right,  Residence  of  Officer  in  Charge;  to  the  Left,  Assistants’  Quarters. 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  V. 


Headquarters  of  Fremont  Experiment  Station,  Pikes  Peak  in  the  Background. 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


29 


of  the  first  experiment  station  at  Flagstaff,  Ariz.,  in  the  summer  of 
1908.  Advantages  of  economy  and  greater  efficiency  in  conducting 
investigative  work  in  silviculture  at  an  experiment  station  are  appa¬ 
rent.  Under  the  old  system  of  conducting  investigative  work, 
assignments  to  an  extensive  area  were  usually  necessary,  to  which 
the  observer  could  devote  but  a  short  field  season.  Under  the  system 
of  Forest  experiment  stations,  specially  trained  men  are  permanently 
assigned  to  a  given  region  with  which  they  have  an  opportunity  to 
become  thoroughly  familiar  and  therefore  are  capable  of  conducting 
the  work  with  the  greatest  effectiveness  and  least  expense.  Each  of 
the  experiment  stations  is  allotted  an  area  sufficient  for  the  proper 
handling  of  short-period  experiments,  for  experiments  requiring  a 
number  of  years,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  large  permanent  sample 
areas  which  serve  as  models  typical  of  the  silvicultural  region.  Such 
areas  furnish  the  most  valuable,  instructive,  and  convincing  object 
lessons  for  the  public  in  general,  for  professional  foresters,  lumber¬ 
men,  and  owners  of  forest  land,  and  especially  for  the  technical  and 
administrative  officers  of  the  National  Forests. 

The  organization  of  the  Forest  experiment  stations  made  possible 
the  use  of  uniform  methods  in  dealing  with  forest  problems.  General 
problems  are  treated  at  the  different  stations  simultaneously;  local 
problems  in  the  region  to  which  their  results  apply.  All  of  the  modi¬ 
fying  factors  which  enter  into  the  results  of  experiments  are  measured 
by  observations  covering  many  conditions  and  years  and  are  thus 
determined  once  for  all  with  the  greatest  economy  and  the  least  dupli¬ 
cation  of  work. 

The  stations  are  distributed  in  such  a  way  that  one  station  is 
located  in  each  of  the  silvicultural  regions  of  the  West.  A  single 
Forest,  representing  as  much  as  possible  the  conditions  typical  of  the 
region,  is  selected  and  a  portion  of  this  area  set  aside  for  the  purposes 
of  the  experiment  station. 

Fort  Valley  Experiment  Station. 

This  is  the  oldest  station,  having  been  established  in  the  summer 
of  1908.  It  is  located  on  the  Coconino  National  Forest  within  8  miles 
of  Flagstaff,  and  is  typical  of  the  western  yellow-pine  forests  of  the 
Southwest. 

Fremont  Experiment  Station. 

This  station  was  stablished  in  1909.  It  was  named  in  honor  of 
Gen.  John  C.  Fremont,  .a  famous  explorer  of  the  Pikes  Peak  region. 
It  is  located  on  the  front  range  of  the  Pocky  Mountains,  75  miles  south 
of  Denver,  10  miles  west  of  Colorado  Springs,  and  2  miles  from 
Manitou,  which  is  at  the  base  of  the  mountains.  The  situation  may 
be  said  to  be  on  the  slope  of  Pikes  Peak,  although  the  station  is  nearly 
4  miles  from  the  Peak  and  1  mile  lower  than  its  summit.  At  ap- 


30 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


proximately  8,850  feet  elevation,  the  Fremont  Station  is  almost  at 
the  middle  of  the  forest  range,  timber  line  on  the  Peak  being  at 
11,500  feet,  and  the  lower  limit  of  forest  growth  at  about  6,500. 
Either  extreme  of  tree  growth  is  within  4  miles  of  the  station. 
The  Pike  National  Forest  is  an  especially  desirable  site  for  a  Forest 
experiment  station  on  account  of  the  wide  range  of  altitude  which  it 
covers  and  the  versatility  of  physical  conditions  within  its  limits. 
The  forest  types  surrounding  the  station  are  those  of  western  yellow 
pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  Engelmann  spruce. 

Wagon  Wheel  Gap  Experiment  Station. 

This  station  was  established  in  1910.  While  it  is  almost  in  the 
same  region  as  the  Fremont  Experiment  Station,  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  organized  is  entirely  distinct,  namely,  the  study  of  the 
effect  of  forest  cover  upon  streamflow.  It  is  located  on  the  Rio 
Grande  National  Forest  near  Wagon  Wheel  Gap,  and  the  watershed 
studies  are  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau. 

Priest  River  Experiment  Station. 

This  station  was  organized  in  the  fall  of  1911.  It  is  located  on 
the  Kaniksu  National  Forest  about  14  miles  from  the  town  of  Priest 
River.  It  is  typical  of  the  limited  silvicultural  region  composed  of 
western  white  pine  and  western  larch. 

Feather  River  Experiment  Station. 

This  station  was  organized  in  the  fall  of  1912.  It  is  located  on  the 
Plumas  National  Forest  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sierras.  It  is  within 
a  region  typical  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierras  where  the  most 
important  species  are  western  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  and  incense 
cedar,  which  occur  in  mixture  with  each  other  and  with  other  species 
such  as  Douglas  fir  and  white  fir. 

Utah  Experiment  Station. 

This  station  was  organized  in  the  fall  of  1912  on  the  Manti  National 
Forest,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  intensive  grazing  studies, 
especially  studies  of  the  effect  of  grass  cover  and  grazing  upon  floods, 
erosion,  and  purity  of  the  water  supply.  Since  this  station  is  located 
in  the  Wasatch  range  of  mountains  in  the  midst  of  vast  areas  of  aspen, 
opportunity  is  afforded  also  for  carrying  on  silvicultural  investiga¬ 
tions  in  the  management  of  aspen  stands  and  their  replacement  by 
conifers. 

Arlington  Farm,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  work  at  the  Arlington  farm  is  limited  to  seed  tests  in  the  green¬ 
houses  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  to  basket-willow  studies, 
propagation  of  different  varieties  of  willows,  and  raising  small  quan- 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


31 


titles  of  basket-willow  rods  of  the  recognized  commercial  species.  It 
is  not,  therefore,  a  forest  experiment  station  in  the  sense  all  other 
stations  are. 

The  experiment  stations  in  the  different  districts  do  not  attempt  to 
duplicate  the  work  of  each  other,  but  each  aims  to  concentrate  on 
problems  most  typical  and  most  urgent  in  the  district  in  which  it  is 
located.  Examples  of  this  are  as  follows: 

District  3  (including  Arizona  and  New  Mexico)  has  a  problem  of 
the  first  importance  in  the  study  of  the  western  yellow-pine  forest, 
j  its  management  and  reproduction.  The  investigations  in  this  district 
are  therefore  chiefly  directed  to  the  solution  of  such  problems.  All 
other  districts  have  western  yellow  pine  which  enters  more  or  less 
into  the  management  of  their  Forests,  but  to  a  less  extent  than  in 
District  3. 

In  District  2  (Colorado  and  Wyoming)  lodgepole  pine,  Douglas  fir, 
and  Engelmann  spruce  form  the  bulk  of  the  Forests.  Their  manage¬ 
ment  and  reforestation  is  therefore  the  main  field  for  investigation. 

In  District  1  (Montana  and  northern  Idaho)  the  western  white  pine 
and  larch  types,  and  to  a  considerable  extent,  also,  lodgepole  pine, 
attract  especially  the  attention  of  the  investigator.  As  far  as  the 
problems  in  the  lodgepole-pine  type  are  concerned,  however,  the  inves¬ 
tigations  are  divided,  as  far  as  possible,  between  Districts  1  and  2. 
Thus  the  investigations  in  District  1  are  chiefly  of  growth,  volume, 
and  yield;  in  District  2,  chiefly  of  seed  collection,  seed  extraction, 

*  and  reforestation. 

In  District  6  (Oregon,  Washington,  and  Alaska)  the  experiments 
in  the  Douglas-fir  type  are  emphasized,  while  in  District  5  (California) 
the  mixed  forest  of  sugar  pine,  yellow  pine,  and  incense  cedar  as  well 
as  eucalyptus  problems  are  brought  to  the  front. 

The  silvicultural  investigations  carried  on  by  the  Forest  Service  are 
conveniently  classed  under  the  following  headings : 

Forestation: 

General  studies. 

Seed,  production,  fertility,  methods  of  extraction,  etc. 

Nursery  practice. 

Species,  methods,  and  seasons  for  artificial  forestation. 

Sites — limits  upon  the  growth  of  each  species  fixed  by  site  conditions. 

Introduction  of  exotics. 

Species. 

Forest  influences  upon  climate,  stream  flow,  erosion,  etc. 

Management: 

General  systems  and  their  technical  basis. 

Methods  of  cutting. 

Brush  disposal. 

Natural  reproduction. 

Thinnings. 

Valuation— immature  growth,  merchantable  timber,  soil  for  forest  production. 
Mensuration. 


32 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


Protection  from — 

Fire. 

Grazing. 

Diseases. 

Insects. 

Animals. 

Snow. 

Regional  studies  of  types  and  forest  conditions. 

Silvical  studies  : 

Distribution  of  forest  trees  and  types. 

Forest  types — description,  basis  of  tree  associations,  etc. 

Special  studies. 

Tree  studies:  Growth,  yield,  silvical  characteristics,  methods  of  management,  etc. 
Utilization  studies. 

FORESTATION. 

The  studies  and  experiments  in  forestation  cover  the  entire  field 
of  establishing  a  forest  by  artificial  means — from  the  collection  of  the 
seed  to  the  final  sowing  of  seed  or  planting  of  trees  in  the  field.  They 
include  investigations  in  regard  to  the  collection  and  testing  of  seed; 
factors  influencing  the  amount  and  quality  of  seed  produced,  such  as 
site,  age,  and  condition  of  the  tree;  periodicity  of  seed  years;  effect 
of  the  source  of  seed,  such  as  the  locality  in  which  the  seed  was  pro¬ 
duced  and  the  condition  of  the  mother  tree,  upon  the  size  and  hardi¬ 
ness  of  the  seedlings.  They  cover  experiments  in  the  nursery  as  to 
the  time  of  sowing,  depth  of  covering,  necessity  for  shade,  protection 
from  birds  and  rodents,  age  at  transplanting,  methods  of  transplant¬ 
ing,  use  of  fertilizers,  etc.,  for  the  various  species,  also  experiments 
in  seed  sowing  and  planting  of  nursery  and  forest-grown  stock  to 
determine  the  comparative  values  of  each  for  the  various  species  and 
sites,  as  well  as  the  best  seasons,  the  best  age  of  stock,  methods  of 
sowing  and  planting,  the  possibility  of  extending  the  range  of  native 
species,  or  of  introducing  exotics. 

Seed  Investigations. 

The  extensive  seed  collecting  and  seed  extracting  operations  now 
carried  on  by  the  Forest  Service  called  forth  an  important  line  of 
experiments  with  seed.  This  included  methods  of  collecting,  clean¬ 
ing,  extracting,  testing,  and  storing  of  seed.  The  technique  of 
handling  large  quantities  of  cones  and  of  handling  the  seed  receive 
special  attention,  since  it  is  felt  that  this  work,  involving  the  expendi¬ 
ture  of  thousands  of  dollars,  must,  by  all  means,  be  on  a  scientific  basis. 

From  the  tree  to  the  final  storage  room  seed  under  artificial  treat¬ 
ment  is  liable  to  a  great  many  injuries  in  careless  hands.  The  prob¬ 
lems  have  not  been  thoroughly  worked  out  by  commercial  seed  deal¬ 
ers  because  the  demand  for  forest  tree  seed  has  been  small.  Even  the 
procedure  worked  out  by  European  foresters  can  not  be  closely  fol¬ 
lowed  in  handling  our  native  species,  such  as  lodgepole  pine  or  western 


Review  of  Invesiigai ions — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  VI. 


Fig.  2.— Interior  View  of  Greenhouse  at  Fremont  Experiment  Station,  where 

Seed  Tests  are  Made  for  the  District. 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


33 


larch,  which  have  peculiar  cones.  No  doubt  much  difference  exists 
in  the  resistance  to  heat,  moisture,  and  mechanical  injury  of  our 
various  native  species. 

The  problems  which  are  aimed  to  be  solved  by  these  experiments 
are:  How  can  cones  be  handled  to  yield  the  largest  quantity  of  seed 
of  the  best  quality,  without  impairing  the  germinative  power  under 
processes  which  are  not  natural  but  which  must  be  resorted  to  for  the 
sake  of  economy;  how  can  the  seed  be  best  stored  so  as  to  retain  the 
greatest  vigor  and  value  in  producing  immediate  results  from  sowing; 
how  to  determine  in  the  shortest  time  possible,  and  yet  accurately,  the 
fertility  of  the  germinative  vigor  of  the  seed  as  a  guide  for  sowing  in 
the  nurseries  and  in  the  field,  and  how  the  source  of  seed  affects  the 
vitality  and  future  growth  of  the  seedlings. 

The  source  of  seed  has  a  great  bearing  upon  reforestation  work.  In 
the  practical  work  of  planting,  it  frequently  becomes  necessary  to 
choose  between  two  supplies  of  seed  available  for  the  work,  both  pos¬ 
sibly  from  distinct  sources.  To  what  extent  the  source,  as  well  as  the 
germinative  value  of  the  seed,  may  influence  the  success  of  the  opera¬ 
tion  and  to  what  extent  stock  from  distinct  points  will  prove  adaptable 
to  local  conditions  are  always  doubtful  questions. 

Some  of  the  problems  encountered  are : 

1.  Is  it  advisable  to  use  on  one  Forest  seed  collected  on  another 
Forest,  which  may  be  somewhat  different  as  regards  latitude,  precip¬ 
itation  or  character  of  soil,  or  even  seed  collected  in  a  situation  on 
the  same  Forest,  differing  radically  in  any  of  these  respects?  The 
extent  to  which  the  source  of  seed  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  success 
of  direct  seeding  work  determines  the  procedure  to  be  followed  in 
collecting  seed,  in  centralizing  seed-extracting  operations,  etc. 

2.  Do  trees  which  are  especially  heavy  seed  bearers  necessarily 
produce  the  most  thrifty  and  vigorous  seedlings  ?  If  so,  seed  collect¬ 
ing  should  undoubtedly  be  restricted  to  such  trees  as  much  as 
possible. 

3.  Are  certain  defects  of  parent  trees,  which  may,  in  some  instances, 
make  them  prolific  seed  bearers,  especially  attractive  to  the  collector, 
likely  to  be  transmitted,  as  weaknesses,  to  their  offspring,  and  are 
defects  in  the  technical  quality  of  the  wood  hereditary  or  purely  the 
result  of  the  conditions  of  growth?  There  is  much  evidence  leading 
to  the  former  supposition.  If  this  is  well  grounded,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  improve  the  quality  of  our  timber  while  regenerat¬ 
ing  the  immense  areas  of  burns  and  cut-over  lands. 

4.  Are  the  most  rapid-growing  climatic  varieties  adaptable  to 
change  of  environment;  and,  if  so,  will  they  prove  more  valuable  in 
any  locality  than  the  native  form,  or  will  they  revert  immediately 
to  the  same  form  and  rate  of  growth  ? 

65603°— 13 - 3 


34  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  VOL.  I. 

5.  In  the  introduction  of  species  to  a  new  region,  such,  for  instance, 
as  the  Nebraska  sandhills,  where  all  forest  trees  maybe  considered  as 
exotics,  many  unexpected  natural  enemies  make  their  appearance. 
Probably  the  most  important  factor  in  success  or  failure,  however,  is 
climate.  Despite  all  efforts  to  care  for  seedlings  in  the  nursery,  to 
protect  them  from  disease,  excessive  light,  and  drought,  and  despite 
the  efforts  to  make  the  conditions  at  the  time  of  planting  as  favorable 
as  possible,  results  so  far  obtained  indicate  that  in  a  given  situation 
only  a  certain  proportion  of  the  orginal  number  of  seedlings  of  any 
species  will  survive.  F ailure  to  adapt  to  new  conditions  is  the  only 
possible  explanation.  Can  the  quality  of  adaptability,  or  original 
hardiness,  be  traced  to  the  parent  trees  ? 

These  problems  are  only  different  phases  of  one  problem — when  and 
how  shall  the  seed  for  reforestation  work  be  selected  ? 

A  number  of  experiments  to  answer  these  questions  are  now  car¬ 
ried  on  at  the  different  experiment  stations.  In  order  to  yield 
conclusive  results,  however,  these  experiments  will  have  to  be  carried 
on  for  several  years. 

Nursery  Practice. 

Experiments  in  nursery  practice  are  confined  to  raising  stock  in 
the  nursery.  There  are  many  problems  in  the  handling  of  a  forest- 
tree  nursery  in  a  given  region  which  must  be  determined  for  that 
particular  nursery.  To  accept  the  findings  of  an  investigator  who 
has  worked  with  entirely  different  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and 
tree  species  may  be  worse  for  the  nurseryman  than  to  be  ignorant  of 
any  such  investigations.  For  instance,  nursery  practices  which  have 
proved  very  successful  in  the  New  York  State  nurseries  have  been 
almost  disastrous  when  attempted  under  the  absolutely  different 
conditions  of  the  Halsey  nursery,  Nebraska.  There  are  practices 
which  would  be  bad  under  any  conditions,  others  which  with  discre¬ 
tion  might  well  be  applied  anywhere,  but  for  the  most  part  each 
nurseryman  must  work  out  his  own  problems. 

Species,  Methods,  and  Seasons — Sites. 

Experiments  with  species,  methods,  and  seasons,  as  well  as  with 
sites,  are  designed  to  determine  what  measure  of  success  may  be 
expected  from  different  species  and  methods  for  planting  or  sowing 
on  various  sites.  With  respect  to  the  latter  point,  the  problem  is 
mainly  one  of  determining  where  the  efforts  may  be  best  applied  in 
the  hope  of  encouraging  the  reforestation  work  on  favorable  sites, 
and  it  will  usually  follow,  too,  that  the  site  which  is  most  favorable 
for  sowing  and  planting  will  produce  the  best  timber  in  the  shortest 
time.  On  the  other  hand,  situations  most  in  need  of  a  protective 
forest  are  usually  the  most  difficult  to  stock. 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


35 


The  methods  of  procedure  in  sowing  and  planting  must  be  thor¬ 
oughly  worked  out  on  a  small  scale  in  order  to  execute  larger  opera- 

[tions,  which  are  much  needed,  most  economically.  The  importance 
of  this  line  of  work  can  not  be  overestimated,  nor  should  the  value  of 
small,  carefully  studied  experiments  be  deprecated.  Viewed  on  the 
basis  of  present  plans  for  reforestation  work,  and  the  experience 
gained  at  experiment  stations  during  the  last  few  years,  a  thousand 
dollars  expended  in  experimental  work  at  two  or  three  points  would 
furnish  a  knowledge  of  methods  and  seasons  for  sowing  a  given  species, 
while  in  a  single  year  $10,000  might  be  expended  without  results 
if  the  work  happened  to  be  done  at  the  wrong  time  or  in  the 
wrong  way.  The  value  of  any  method  of  sowing  or  planting  must  be 
judged  entirely  by  the  results  which  it  produces,  or,  in  short,  the  num¬ 
ber  of  trees  established  in  a  new  site,  for  each  dollar  expended. 

The  numerous  problems  encountered  in  the  reforestation  work,  the 
solution  of  which  is  being  attempted,  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 

1.  Effect  of  situation  (slope,  aspect,  etc.)  on  success  of  sowing  and 
planting. 

2.  Effect  of  herbaceous,  shrubby,  or  arborescent  cover  on  the 
success  of  sowing  or  planting. 

3.  Effect  of  grazing  on  the  work  of  reforestation. 

4.  The  best  season  for  sowing  and  planting. 

5.  The  best  methods  of  sowing  and  planting,  or  comparison  of  both 
processes,  including  the  preparation  of  ground. 

6.  The  best  kind  of  stock  for  planting  (in  a  given  species). 

7.  The  destruction  of  rodents,  and  other  means  to  insure  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  sowings. 

The  best  methods  of  reforestation  and  the  most  favorable  season 
for  sowing  seed  and  planting  nursery  stock  are  being  tested  with  all 
important  trees  upon  the  National  Forests. 

Studies  in  Range  Extension  and  Introduction  of  Exotics. 

Within  the  National  Forests,  as  well  as  outside  of  them,  in  the 
nountainous  regions,  the  several  forest  types  are  found  in  distinct 
dtitudinal  zones. 

The  chief  differences  between  successive  zones  lie  in  the  amount  of 
)recipitation  which  they  receive  and,  less  important,  in  a  decreasing 
nean  temperature  toward  the  higher  altitudes.  To  what  extent  the 
imount  of  moisture  present  in  the  soil  and  the  temperature  absolutely 
imit  the  altitudinal  range  of  a  species  and  to  what  extent  this  limit  a_ 
ion  of  range  of  any  species  is  due  to  the  more  successful  competition 
)f  another  species  is  still  a  matter  of  speculation.  It  is  believed  that 
my  species  is  capable  of  adapting  itself  to  less  moisture  on  the  one 
land  and  lower  temperature  on  the  other  than  are  found  in  its  native 
labitat.  Such  being  the  case,  it  is  possible  that  yellow  pine  and 


i 


36 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vol.  I. 


Douglas  fir,  for  instance,  by  far  the  most  valuable  of  the  four  principal 
species  concerned  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  can  be  made  to  grow  in 
place  of  the  less  valuable  pinon  on  the  one  hand  and  the  less  valuable 
Engelmann  spruce  on  the  other.  It  goes  without  saying  that  this  is 
a  problem  in  reforestation  to  be  considered  where  there  is  to  be  no 
competition  between  the  natural  species  of  the  type  and  the  species 
whose  range  is  extended  into  that  type.  In  other  words,  can  we  not 
create  temporary  types  in  reforestation  more  valuable  than  the 
natural  types  ? 

To  answer  this  question,  two  experiments  have  been  inaugurated 
at  the  Fremont  Station  with  the  extension  of  Douglas  fir  by  artificial 
sowing  and  planting  to  higher  altitudes  and  with  the  extension  of 
yellow  pine  to  lower  altitudes.  These  experiments,  if  serving  no 
other  useful  purpose,  will  furnish  more  definite  information  than  is 
yet  available  regarding  the  climatic  limitations  of  successful 
reforestation. 

What  is  true  of  altitudinal  range  is  also  true  of  geographic  range. 
There  are  many  species  which  occur  in  some  National  Forests  and  are 
absent  in  others,  although  the  climatic  and  other  physical  conditions 
may  be  nearly  the  same.  Thus,  lodgepole  pine  is  absent  from  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  yet  there  are  many 
localities  where  it  could  apparently  grow  well. 

Experiments  were  instituted  in  several  of  the  National  Forests, 
and  especially  in  the  Fremont  Experiment  Station,  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  possibility  of  introducing,  by  means  of  sowing  and 
planting,  such  species  as  eastern  white  pine  ( Pinus  strobus),  western 
white  pine  ( Pinus  monticola) ,  lodgepole  pine,  Norway  pine,  and  several 
others  which  do  not  occur  there  naturally,  but  whose  climatic  require¬ 
ments  do  not  differ  essentially  from  the  other  species  growing  in  those 
localities. 

While  the  Forest  Service  is  not  directly  concerned  with  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  any  foreign  species  into  this  country,  and  believes  that  our 
own  forest  flora  is  so  rich  in  species  that  it  is  possible  to  find  trees 
practically  for  any  situation  and  soil,  yet  there  are  a  few  species 
abroad  the  advantage  of  which  is  so  evident  that  the  I  orest  Service 
carried  on  several  experiments  for  the  purpose  of  determining  their 
suitability  in  this  country.  Among  the  species  are  cork  oak,  mari¬ 
time  pine,  Austrian  pine,  European  larch,  Norway  spruce,  Scotch 
pine,  eucalypts,  and  acacias  (wattles). 

FOREST  INFLUENCES. 

Experiments  in  forest  influences  aim  to  determine  the  relation  of 
forests  to  climate  and  stream  flow  and  also  to  obtain  data  necessary 
for  a  proper  understanding  of  all  other  silvicultural  experiments  in 
which  the  climatic  factor  enters  into  the  results.  The  essential  lea- 


Review  of  Investigations — Vol.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  VII. 


Fig.  2.— Priest  River  Experiment  Station  Greenhouse. 


Review  of  Investigations — Voi.  I,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Plate  VIII 


i  S 
i 


i 


Control  Meteorological  Station  on  Benton  Flat,  Priest  River  Experiment  Station.  In  Back¬ 
ground  an  Even-Aged  Stand  of  50-Year-Old  Western  Larch.  Situation  Representative  of 

THF  I  4RP.M  Type  nr  MnRTU\»yc(;TrDM  Akin.  Iruun 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


37 


tures  of  these  experiments  are  meteorological  observations  arranged 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  the  relation  between  vegetation,  climate, 
and  stream  flow.  These  observations  are  carried  on  in  cooperation 
with  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau.  The  cooperative  plan 
agreed  to  by  the  Weather  Bureau  provides  that  it  shall  furnish  the 
instruments  for  observations  of  air,  temperature,  humidity,  precipita¬ 
tion,  and  wind  velocity.  In  most  cases  three  sets  of  instruments  are 
installed  at  the  same  experiment  station,  either  in  different  forest 
types  or  in  the  forest,  on  the  edge  of  the  forest,  and  in  the  open. 

One  of  the  most  important  forest  influences  is  considered  to  be  its 
effect  upon  stream  flow. 

There  is  still  some  skepticism  as  to  the  great  value  of  the  forest 
cover  in  retaining  the  water  of  precipitation  and  preventing  its  rapid 
run-off.  The  results  of  European  investigation  of  this  and  other 
matters  concerned  with  the  indirect  influence  of  the  forest  must  not 
be  taken  as  final,  or  even  as  having  very  great  bearing  on  the  question 
as  presented  in  this  country.  The  fact  that  Europeans  have  found 
very  little  difference  between  the  climate  inside  and  that  outside  the 
forest,  that  they  have  noted  no  great  change  in  the  flow  and  quality 
of  their  streams,  etc.,  is  easily  accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  their 
observations  have  covered  no  great  range  of  climatic  conditions,  and 
that  they  have  practically  all  been  made  since  the  time  when  the  forest 
area  assumed  its  normal  position  in  the  balance.  No  such  extremes 
of  climate  as  this  country  possesses,  or  such  a  change  in  the  forest 
'  cover  as  has  been  witnessed  here  in  the  past  century,  are  to  be  imagined 
for  any  country  in  Europe,  and  hardly  for  the  whole  continent.  The 
study  of  the  effect  of  forest  cover  upon  stream  flow  is  studied  at  the 
Wagon  Wheel  Gap  Station,  which  has  been  established  entirely  for 
this  purpose.  The  object  of  the  stream-flow  experiment  as  it  is  con¬ 
ducted  on  the  Rio  Grande  National  Forest  is  to  determine  by  means 
of  the  most  highly  accurate  measurements  the  effect  of  forest  cover 
upon  the  high  and  low  water  stages  of  mountain  streams,  the  total 
run-off  from  mountain  watersheds  as  compared  with  the  annual 
precipitation,  and  the  erosion  of  the  surface  of  such  watersheds.  The 
measurements  of  factors  concerned  are  so  made  as  to  furnish  in  a 
general  way  an  estimate  of  the  relative  amounts  of  run-off  and  evap¬ 
orated  water  of  each  watershed.  Since,  as  has  been  shown  by 
geological  examination,  there  is  very  small  possibility  of  an  escape  of 
the  water  of  precipitation,  by  percolation,  other  than  through  the 
main  channels  of  the  streams  involved,  there  is  no  third  element  to 
be  measured. 

In  the  present  case  the  comparison  of  the  forested  and  nonforested 
mountain  watershed  is  obtained  in  a  manner  which  can  not  fail  to 
give  convincing  results.  Measurements  of  the  streams  in  two 
watersheds,  both  moderately  well  covered  with  forest,  will  be  con- 


i 


38  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  VoL.  I. 

ducted  for  a  number  of  years  with  the  measurements  of  all  the  fac¬ 
tors  which  may  affect  the  character  of  the  flow  of  each  stream.  Bv 
this  process  a  certain  relation  will  be  established  between  the  two 
streams  for  different  sets  of  conditions  of  different  characters.  For 
instance,  it  will  be  found  that  a  given  amount  of  precipitation  produces 
in  one  watershed  a  flood  of  a  given  height  and  in  the  other  watershed 
a  flood  of  slightly  different  height,  but  both  influenced  by  forest 
covers  of  practically  the  same  character.  Or,  again,  a  given  amount 
of  snow  melting  under  a  given  maximum  and  mean  daily  tempera¬ 
ture  of  air  and  soil  produces  a  given  flow  in  each  stream.  When 
this  comparison  has  been  carried  long  enough  to  furnish  a  number 
of  relations  between  the  two  watersheds,  one  watershed  will  be  de¬ 
nuded  and  the  forest  cover  upon  the  other  will  be  retained.  There 
will  be,  therefore,  upon  the  forested  watershed  the  same  conditions 
affecting  the  flow  of  the  stream  in  that  watershed  as  during  the  earlier 
part  of  the  experiment,  while  upon  the  denuded  watershed  the  condi¬ 
tions  will  have  been  changed  only  so  far  as  forest  cover  is  concerned, 
and  any  changes  in  the  relative  behavior  of  the  two  streams  as 
before  and  after  the  denudation  must  therefore  be  accredited  to 
the  change  in  forest-cover  conditions.  To  cite  a  hypothetical  case: 
With  the  forest  cover  on  both  watersheds  a  rainfall  of  1  inch  in 
1  hour  produces  a  flow  in  the  watershed  A  of  1  foot  of  water  over 
the  weir,  the  crest  of  the  flow  occurring  2  hours  after  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  precipitation  as  recorded  by  the  time  record  at  the 
head  of  the  watershed  and  automatic  stage  register  at  the  measuring 
point  of  the  stream.  In  watershed  B  the  same  precipitation  pro¬ 
duces  a  flow  of  15  inches  over  the  weir,  occurring  If  hours  after  the 
beginning  of  the  storm.  The  two  streams  during  the  progress  of 
this  flow  deposit  an  equal  amount  of  silt  in  the  settling  basins  as 
measured  by  actual  weight,  and  samples  of  the  water  passing  out 
of  the  basins  are  shown  to  be  carrying  the  same  amount  of  finer  silt 
which  does  not  settle. 

After  the  denudation  of  watershed  B,  a  similar  storm  produces  in 
watershed  A  a  similar  flow  as  regards  volume  and  time,  while  in  water¬ 
shed  B  it  produces  a  flow  of  20  inches,  occurring  H  hours  after  the 
beginning  of  precipitation,  and  it  is  found  that  a  much  larger  amount 
of  silt  has  been  deposited  in  the  settling  basin. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  such  comparative  records  as  these, 
whether  or  not  they  prove  the  contention  as  to  the  value  of  forest 
cover  in  retarding  run-off  and  preventing  erosion  of  the  slopes  of 
watersheds,  must  carry  conviction  which  can  not  fail  to  be  of  assist¬ 
ance  toward  a  proper  understanding  of  the  value  of  mountain 
forests. 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


39 


MANAGEMENT  STUDIES. 

The  purpose  of  these  studies  is  to  determine  the  best  methods 
of  cutting  in  the  different  forest  types  in  order  to  secure  natural 
reproduction  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  The  most  economical 
and  best  method  of  reforestation  is,  of  course,  by  natural  seeding 
from  the  trees  left  on  the  cut-over  land  or  from  trees  adjoining  the 
cutting.  These  studies  include  also  experiments  in  assisting  natural 
reproduction  by  various  methods  of  brush  disposal,  destruction  of 
unfavorable  ground  cover,  soil  preparation,  and  other  means.  By  the 
study  of  cut-over  areas  in  which  there  is  already  partial  reproduction 
much  time  may  be  saved  in  obtaining  results.  The  old  cuttings, 
however,  did  not  follow  any  distinct  silvicultural  systems,  and  few, 
if  any,  followed  the  systems  which  we  may  hope  to  adopt  in  the 
future.  For  the  most  thorough  studies,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  select  small  areas  of  timber  sales  and  follow  out  an  ideal  system 
of  cutting,  sometimes  at  slight  additional  expense,  since  it  is  fre¬ 
quently  necessary  to  overreach  the  terms  of  the  contract  under 
which  the  mam  cutting  is  being  done.  While  a  fair  beginning  has 
been  made  in  experiments  of  this  character,  there  are  few  results 
available  as  yet,  since  it  will  take  several  years  before  the  effect  of 
one  or  another  method  of  cutting  will  show  itself  upon  the  success  or 
failure  of  natural  reproduction. 

•  Studies  in  management  include  further  experiments  in  thinnings 
to  determine  the  effect  of  improvement  cuttings  on  the  volume  and 
quality  increment  of  the  remaining  trees  for  various  exposures, 
types,  and  species  with  special  reference  to  the  relation  of  the  cost 
of  such  thinnings  to  the  value  increment.  While  thinnings  as  a  dis¬ 
tinct  cultural  operation  will  be  hardly  applicable  yet  for  many  years 
in  most  of  our  forests,  there  are  types  where  the  removal  of  certain 
classes  of  trees  is  practicable  at  present  and  is  of  benefit  to  the 
remaining  stand.  Such  stands  are  found  in  the  lodgepole  pine, 
Douglas  fir,  and  in  some  instances  also  in  the  yellow  pine  types. 
Thinning  experiments  are  now  conducted  on  a  number  of  Forests, 
especially  in  Districts  1  and  2. 

Methods  of  determining  the  value  of  land  for  agricultural  or  forest 
purposes,  and  of  ascertaining  the  damage  caused  by  fire  to  immature 
or  mature  stands,  -form  also  a  part  of  management  studies.  While 
there  are  definite  mathematical  formulas  for  calculating  the  pro¬ 
ductive  capacity  of  the  soil  and  the  value  of  immature  timber,  the 
application  of  the  formulas  depends  on  many  factors,  such  as  the 
rotation  adopted  for  the  different  species,  stumpage  prices,  cost  of 
natural  or  artificial  reforestation.  These  factors  must  be  carefully 
studied  before  we  can  be  certain  that  the  formulas  used  answer  the 
present  economic  conditions  of  forestry  in  this  country. 


40 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


MENSURATION  STUDIES. 


The  proper  handling  of  timber  sales  as  well  as  the  management  of 
the  forests  must  necessarily  be  based  on  reliable  data  as  to  the  growth, 
volume,  and  yield  of  the  different  species  and  types  of  forests.  They 
are  also  essential  for  determining  the  damages  caused  by  fires,  tres¬ 
pass,  etc.  The  purpose  of  growth  studies  is  first  of  all  to  collect  such 
data,  and  from  them  to  establish  certain  laws  of  tree  grow.th.  In 
addition,  studies  in  mensuration  include  comparison  of  different 
methods  of  gathering  data;  for  instance,  whether  the  accretion  borer 
or  stump  analysis  should  be  used  for  determining  the  rate  of  growth, 
tape  or  calipers  for  standing  trees  on  sample  plots,  strip  surveys,  or 
ocular  estimates  for  determining  yield  in  reconnaissance  work. 
The  work  of  collecting  growth  and  yield  data  is  carried  on  largely 
in  connection  with  the  reconnaissance  work  in  the  districts  and  is 
confined  to  timber-sale  areas  which  afford  the  best  opportunity  for 
measuring  large  numbers  of  trees,  and  to  permanent  sample  plots 
which  present  the  best  means  for  measuring  the  growth  of  standing 
timber.  Such  data  are  also  collected  in  connection  with  tree  studies. 

To  the  growth  and  yield  studies  belong  also  the  establishment  of 
permanent  sample  plots.  The  purpose  of  the  sample  plots  is  to  have 
in  forests  typical  for  a  given  region  and  species  definitely  and  dis¬ 
tinctly  marked  areas  on  which  all  the  trees  are  carefully  measured 
and  within  which  certain  silvicultural  operations,  such  as  thinnings, 
improvement  cuttings,  etc.,  are  made.  These  areas  are  measured 
at  definite  intervals  for  each  experiment,  and  the  results  of  thinning, 
opening  up  of  the  forest,  or  removal  of  the  litter  which  find  their 
expression  in  the  growth  of  the  trees  are  studied.  These  areas  at 
the  same  time  furnish  yield  data,  that  is,  the  amount  of  timber  that 
can  be  secured  from  forest  land  at  certain  ages  of  the  stand.  Most 
of  the  sample  plots  are  now  established  on  the  National  Forests  in 
connection  with  other  studies.  In  the  East  sample  plots  were  estab¬ 
lished  on  State  and  private  land,  and  many  of  them  which  were 
established  five  years  ago  were  recently  remeasured.  While  these 
sample  plots  are  extremely  valuable  in  themselves,  they  are  also 
used  in  connection  with  other  studies,  such  as  tree  studies  or  the  best 
methods  of  handling  timbcrlands  or  farmers’  woodlots.  The  sample- 
plot  method  is  the  most  reliable  one  for  studying  forest  problems,  and 


furnishes  the  basis  for  American  forest  management. 


PROTECTION  STUDIES. 


These  studies  aim  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  effect  caused  by 
fire,  grazing,  diseases,  insects,  animals,  and  climatic  agencies,  such 
as  snow,  hail,  and  wind,  upon  standing  timber  and  natural  repro¬ 
duction.  The  studies  of  the  effect  of  grazing  form  a  part  of  the  graz- 


1913. 


SILVICULTURE. 


41 


ing  studies  conducted  by  the  Branch  of  Grazing  and  are  taken  up 
more  fully  under  the  head  of  Grazing.  The  object  of  these  investiga¬ 
tions  is  to  secure  definite  data  in  regard  to  actual  amount  of  damage 
done  to  natural  reproduction  by  grazing,  and  of  devising  a  system  of 
range  control  whereby  the  damage  may  be  minimized  without  the 
total  exclusion  of  stock.  The  relation  of  grazing  to  fire  protection, 
the  use  of  goats  for  destroying  chaparral,  and  thus  preparing  for 
reforestation  are  among  the  problems  taken  up  under  this  head. 

While  the  investigations  of  the  diseases  of  trees  are  under  the 
direction  of  the  district  pathologist  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
much  information  is  being  collected  by  the  Forest  Service  as  to  the 
effect  and  extent  of  various  tree  diseases,  such  as  rot,  mistletoe 
infestation,  witches’  brooms,  leaf  and  seedling  diseases.  Similarly, 
while  the  investigations  of  insect  infestations  are  in  charge  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  studies  of  the  actual  insect  control,  the 
location  and  extent  of  infested  areas  are  carried  on  by  forest  officers. 
Specimens  of  injurious  insects,  together  with  specimens  of  their 
work,  are  collected  and  forwarded  for  identification  to  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology. 

Habits  and  detrimental  or  beneficial  effects  of  wild  animals  upon 
forest  growth,  damage  by  rodents  and  birds  in  destroying  seed  or 
seedlings,  and  methods  of  combating  such  animals  are  a  part  of  the 
studies  conducted  under  Forest  Protection.  These  studies  are 
carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the  Biological  Survey,  which  decides 
upon  the  most  effective  methods  of  combating  the  animals. 

REGIONAL  STUDIES. 

Regional  studies  aim  to  secure  authentic  information  concerning 
the  forest  resources  of  State  or  forest  regions.  They  deal  with 
problems  peculiar  to  the  region  or  State  and  are  therefore  of  direct 
benefit  to  the  timber  and  woodlot  owners  of  that  State  or  region. 
Most  of  the  studies  are  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the  States  and 
are  published  by  the  States.  The  regional  studies  provide  informa¬ 
tion  applicable  to  the  timberland  or  woodlots  within  that  region. 
This  enables  the  Forest  Service,  in  advising  the  individual  timber  or 
woodlot  owner,  to  do  away  to  a  large  extent  with  the  necessity  of 
examining  each  individual  woodlot.  Aside  from  the  practical  value 
of  such  regional  studies  they  contribute  to  a  more  exact  and  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  forest  resources  of  this  country  and  their  distribution. 

SILVICAL  STUDIES. 

The  proper  aim  of  silvical  studies  is  to  establish  a  definite  relation 
between  the  forest  region,  forest  types,  and  forest  trees  in  general, 
and  the  climatic  and  physical  factors  affecting  their  distribution  and 
growth.  Silvical  studies  are,  therefore,  largely  forest  ecological 


42 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


studies.  The  silvical  studies  proper  are  largely  concerned  with  the 
studies  of  types,  their  origin,  characteristics,  permanence,  and  their 
development  from  the  seedling  stage  to  maturity.  They  seek  to 
correlate  the  vegetative  phenomena  of  tree  growth,  such  as  leafing, 
flowering,  seed  ripening  and  dissemination,  and  leaf  falling,  with 
climatic  factors.  They  attempt  to  determine  soil,  moisture,  and 
light  requirements  of  the  different  species  and  the  methods  of  deter¬ 
mining  these  requirements  of  forest  trees.  These  studies  are  basic  and 
form  the  foundation  upon  which  the  practical  application  of  the 
silvicultural  methods  must  rest. 

TREE  STUDIES. 

The  purpose  of  tree  studies  is  to  secure  information  concerning  the 
important  forest  trees  of  this  country  as  a  basis  for  their  proper 
management.  The  results  of  such  studies  appear  as  monographs 
dealing  with  the  range  of  each  tree,  its  silvical  characteristics,  yield, 
and  management. 

The  studies  of  individual  trees  in  the  forest  embrace  those  points 
usually  included  in  a  silvical  study,  habitat,  silvical  characteristics 
and  requirements,  form,  volume,  growth,  seeding  capacity,  enemies 
and  diseases,  phenology,  etc.  The  requirements  of  trees  are  studied 
not  only  by  general  observations  but  by  actual  measurements  of  the 
physical  factors  in  which  they  are  growing,  and  the  results  are 
expressed  as  far  as  possible  in  absolute  figures.  Thus,  in  studying 
the  light  or  moisture  requirements  of  a  species  the  actual  light 
intensity  or  wrater  contents  of  the  soil  in  which  it  grows  is  measured. 

UTILIZATION  STUDIES. 

While  problems  in  the  utilization  of  timber  are  best  handled  by  the 
Madison  laboratory,  yet  the  field  studies  in  silviculture  also  present 
many  opportunities  for  experimentation  along  this  line.  The  vast 
areas  of  fire-killed  timber  bring  up  the  question  as  to  the  length  of 
time  during  which  the  fire-killed  timber  may  still  remain  serviceable 
and  therefore  merchantable.  The  rapidity  and  the  causes  of  deterio¬ 
ration  of  fire-killed  timber  is  of  vital  interest,  and  studies  to  determine 
these  facts  are  now  carried  on  in  a  number  of  National  Forests,  espe¬ 
cially  within  the  area  visited  by  the  disastrous  fires  of  1910. 

Since  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  leave  mature  or  overmature 
trees  for  seed  production,  it  is  important  to  knovT  how  long  such  trees 
will  continue  to  bear  seed  and  how  soon  they  will  become  unmerchant- 
able.  To  this  end  records  are  established  at  several  of  the  experiment 
stations  on  a  number  of  trees  in  various  stages  of  decadence.  The 
records  include  the  number,  location,  diameter  breast  high,  crown 
and  bole  description,  and  effects  for  each  individual  tree. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


43 


Aside  from  the  utilization  studies  there  is  a  distinct  field  for  silvical 
investigation  in  connection  with  the  studies  of  the  technical  qualities 
of  wood.  There  should  be  established  a  definite  relationship  between 
the  technical  qualities  of  timber  and  conditions  of  their  growth — 
various  altitudes,  soils,  and  slopes.  This  relationship  would  enable 
such  handling  of  the  growing  forest  as  to  secure  the  most  desirable 
qualities  by  means  of  silvical  operations. 

THE  PROGRAM  OF  INVESTIGATIVE  WORK  FOR  1912. 

In  accordance  with  the  investigative  organization  adopted  this  year 
a  program  of  investigative  work  for  1912,  submitted  in  the  prescribed 
manner,  has  been  approved  by  the  Forester.  This  program  includes 
353  investigative  projects. 

DEFINITION  OF  A  PROJECT.  ‘ 

In  preparing  the  Service  program  each  investigation  having  a 
single  object  but  involving  one  or  several  similar  operations  was 
considered  a  distinct  project.  The  object,  however,  must  not  be  too 
minute,  but  must  aid  at  the  solution  of  some  problem  of  broad 
importance.  What  is  considered  as  a  project  can  best  be  shown  by 
the  following  examples :  In  reforestation  work  all  methods  of  sowing 
or  planting  the  same  species  at  different  times  of  the  year  in  a  single 
district  were  included  under  one  project:  Thus  yellow-pine  sowing 
or  planting  by  different  methods  and  at  different  seasons  in  District 
2  constitutes  a  single  project.  In  products  work  all  tests  of  me¬ 
chanical  properties  of  wood,  based  upon  small  specimens  from  com¬ 
mercial  species  in  the  United  States,  are  classed  as  one  project,  not 
the  tests  on  each  individual  species. 

By  thus  combining  as  one  project  a  number  of  operations  having 
the  same  object,  an  opportunity  is  afforded  to  correlate  the  results 
and  arrive  at  more  definite  conclusions  than  if  each  operation  is 
considered  separately.  The  final  determination  of  what  constitutes 
a  problem  of  sufficient  importance  to  class  as  a  project  must  rest 
with  the  administrative  officers  directing  the  work. 


44 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


The  program  of  work,  as  approved,  is  given  below: 

DENDROLOGY. 

A.— DESCRIPTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  TREES  AND  SHRUBS. 


Project. 


Object. 


Forest  trees  of  the  United 
States:  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  Northeastern  re¬ 
gion. 

Shrubs  of  the  United  States. 


Forest  distribution  studies. . . 

/ 

Study  of  the  forest  flora. 
(Herbarium.) 


To  bring  together  in  a  comprehensive  manner  all  the 
available  information  on  botanical  and  silvical  char¬ 
acteristics  of  forest  trees  by  regions. 

To  bring  together  all  available  information  on  the 
botanical  characters  of  shrubs  for  the  purpose  of 
identification. 

To  determine  the  geographic  distribution  of  North 
American  trees  and  shrubs. 

To  collect  specimens  of  different  species  of  forest  trees 
and  shrubs  for  use  in  dendrological  and  silvical 
studies,  and  in  the  identification  of  specimens  which 
are  sent  in,  and  also  for  supplying  the  Washington 
and  district  herbaria  with  a  full  set  of  specimens. 


B.— IDENTIFICATION  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  FOREST  TREES. 

Wood  structure. 


Distinguishing  characteris¬ 
tics  of  the  wood  of  North 
American  trees:  North 
American  walnuts,  syca¬ 
mores,  elms,  pines,  hick¬ 
ories,  jack  pine,  red  pine. 

Hand  collections  of  75  spe¬ 
cies  of  commercially  im¬ 
portant  North  American 
woods  for  distribution  to 
educational  institutions 
and  to  Forest  districts. 


To  determine  the  structural  and  other  distinguishing 
characters  of  different  species  and  groups  of  woods 
for  the  purpose  of  identifying  them. 


To  furnish  collections  to  schools  and  districts. 


General. 


Identification  of  seedlings 
and  mature  catalpa  trees 
by  means  of  the  wood 
structure .  and  external 
characters. 

The  distinguishing  charac¬ 
ters  of  turpentined  pine 
woods  of  the  South. 


To  determine  reliable  means  for  identification  of  the 
wild  and  cultivated  species  of  catalpa. 


The  identifications  of  wood  from  trees  that  have  been 
turpentined. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


45 


C.—  IDENTIFICATION  OF  EXOTIC  FOREST  TREES. 


Wood  structure. 


Project. 

Object. 

Distinguishing  characteris¬ 
tics  of  Circassian  walnut 
wood . 

Distinguishing  characteris¬ 
tics  of  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  woods: 

True  mahogany . 

To  determine  the  structural  characters  which  dis¬ 
tinguish  this  wood  from  common  substitutes. 

To  furnish  information  on  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  different  grades  of  true  mahogany  wood. 

To  furnish  information  on  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  commerciallv  important  woods  of  the  Panama 
zone. 

To  furnish  information  in  regard  to  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  greenheart  wood. 

Panama  woods . 

Greenheart . 

D.— SPECIAL  STUDIES. 

Pith  flecks  in  North  Ameri¬ 
can  woods. 

To  determine  the  cause  of  pith  flecks  in  North 
American  woods  and  their  value  as  distinguishing 
characters. 

GRAZING. 

A 

.—ARTIFICIAL  RESEEDING. 

Restoration  of  overgrazed 
areas  and  improving  the 
quality  of  forage  by  artifi¬ 
cial  reseeding  with  culti¬ 
vated  plants. 

Introduction  of  forage  plants 
in  the  Southwest. 

Relation  of  soil  acidity  to 
artificial  reseeding. 

Cultivation  of  indigenous 
forage  plants  with  a  view 
to  their  use  for  artificial 
reseeding  of  the  range. 

To  determine  under  what  conditions  seeding  can  be 
successfully  undertaken,  methods  of  seeding,  time 
of  seeding,  amount  of  seed,  cultural  treatment,  and 
methods  of  handling  the  lands  during  the  restocking 
period. 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  improving  range  con¬ 
ditions  in  District  3. 

To  determine  (1)  cultivated  species  best  adapted  to 
acid  soils;  and  (2)  how  to  recognize  strongly  acid  soils 
by  character  of  native  vegetation. 

To  carefully  select  a  few  promising  native  forage  plants, 
collect  seed  in  native  habitat,  put  it  under  cultiva¬ 
tion  at  Forest  experiment  stations,  and  to  determine 
the  possibility  of  securing  seed  for  distribution  at  a 
cost  not  prohibitive. 

B.— NATURAL  RESEEDING. 


Restoration  of  overgrazed 
areas  by  the  natural  re¬ 
seeding  of  native  forage 
plants. 

Rotation  grazing . 


Range  improvement  by  nat¬ 
ural  reseeding. 


To  determine  (1)  the  possibilities  of  naturally  reseeding 
depleted  lands  that  still  have  part  of  the  stand  of 
native  vegetation;  and  (2)  to  devise  a  system  of  graz¬ 
ing  which  will  accomplish  this  result  if  possible. 

To  study  the  practical  application  of  a  rotation  system 
of  grazing  developed  as  a  result  of  the  preceding 
study  to  determine  more  fully  (1)  the  advantages  of 
this  system,  over  existing  systems,  to  the  range  and 
to  the  stock;  and  (2)  to  what  extent  it  can  be  applied 
in  the  practical  management  of  Forest  ranges. 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  increasing  carrying 
capacity  of  much  depleted  range  on  Hayden  Forest 
without  total  restriction  of  grazing. 


46 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


C— DISTRIBUTION  AND  ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  FORAGE  PLANTS. 


Project. 

Object. 

Life  history,  forage  value, 
and  ecological  require¬ 
ments  of  important  forage 
in  the  mountains  of  north¬ 
eastern  Oregon. 

Distribution,  life  history, 
and  economic  importance 
of  forage  plants. 

Distribution,  natural  habits, 
and  economic  importance 
of  forage  plants. 

To  determine  the  entire  life  cycle  of  important  forage 
plants  in  this  locality  as  a  basis  for  judicious  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  grazing  of  lands  supporting  these  plants. 

To  bring  together  valuable  information  on  this  line  col¬ 
lected  in  connection  with  range  reconnaissance  by 
special  grazing  men. 

The  collection  and  identification  of  forage  plants  on 
important  grazing  Forests,  accompanied  by  notes  on 
distribution,  growth  requirements,  and  forage  value. 

D. — FOREST  PROTECTION  (GRAZING). 

[Listed  under  “Silviculture — Protection.”] 

E. — METHODS  OF  HANDLING  STOCK. 

Small  coyote-proof  inclosure 
in  connection  with  range 
lambing  allotments. 

Improved  methods  of  han¬ 
dling  sheep  on  Forest 
range. 

Using  range  without  water 
for  sheep  grazing. 

Carrying  capacity  of  range. . . 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  (1)  decreasing  damage 
to  range  during  lambing  period;  (2)  increasing  per¬ 
centage  of  lambs  saved;  (3)  decreasing  cost  and  diffi¬ 
culty  of  handling. 

To  study  the  practical  application  of  results  from  Ore¬ 
gon  pasture  experiment  to  determine  (1)  possibility 
of  keeping  sheep  away  from  an  established  camp; 
(2)  advantages  of  such  a  system  to  the  range  and  the 
sheep  as  compared  with  existing  methods;  and  (3) 
determining  how  many  sheep  should  be  run  in  a 
band . 

To  ascertain  (1)  kind  of  forage;  (2)  climatic  conditions; 
and  (3)  method  of  handling  sheep  which  are  essential 
if  range  without  watering  places  is  used  for  sheep 
grazing. 

To  secure  actual  figures  on  the  number  of  acres  of  range 
of  a  given  type  necessary  to  support  a  sheep. 

F.— DEVELOPMENT  OF  STOCK-WATERING  PLACES. 

Methods  of  developing  stock¬ 
watering  places. 

To  bring  together  available  data  on  subject  to  deter¬ 
mine  (1)  under  what  conditions  to  develop  water; 
(2)  most  efficient  methods  of  development;  (3) 
capacity  of  watering  place  necessary  per  head  of 
stock. 

G.— POISONOUS-PLANT  INVESTIGATIONS  (COOPERATIVE).! 

Loco-weed  disease . 

To  determine  (1)  poisonous  species;  (2)  under  what 
conditions  poisoning  occurs;  (3)  antidote;  (4)  man¬ 
agement  of  stock  on  poison  areas;  and  (5)  eradication 
of  plants. 

Same  as  above. 

Same  as  above. 

Same  as  above. 

Larkspurs  as  poisonous 
plants. 

Rubber  weed  as  a  poisonous 
plant. 

Lupines,  death  camas,  and 
miscellaneous  poisonous 
plants. 

. 1  Forest  Service  cooperates  by  selecting  field  stations,  aiding  in  equipping  stations,  collecting  informa¬ 
tion  as  to  extent  of  losses  and  locality  of  loss,  and  to  the  extent  of  $2,000  for  salary  and  expenses.  Has 
nothing  to  do  with  collection  of  scientific  experimental  facts. 


11)13. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


47 


H.— SPECIAL  STUDIES. 


Project. 

Object. 

Reclamation  of  mountain 
meadows  depleted  by 
erosion. 

Effect  of  grazing  upon  ero¬ 
sion,  streamflow,  and 
purity  of  water  supply. 

To  determine  possibility  of  constructing  small  dams  in 
erosion  gullies,  checking  velocity  of  water,  and  silting 
up  gullies. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  grazing  upon  erosion, 
streamflow,  and  purity  of  water  supply. 

PRODUCTS. 

A.— MECHANICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  WOODS. 

M ecTianical  properties . 

Project. 

Object. 

Tests  on  small  specimens 
free  from  defects. 


Mechanical  properties  of 
woods  grown  in  the 
United  States.1 


The  relation  between  static 
and  impact  loading  in 
testing-  mechanical  prop¬ 
erties  of  wood . 

Tests  to  determine  the 
strength  of  wood  beams 
under  continuously  ap¬ 
plied  loads. 


To  establish  scales  by  means  of  which  it  will  be  possible 
to  compare  directly  the  bending  and  compressive 
strength,  shearing,  stiffness,  toughness,  specific 
gravity,  etc.,  of  the  commercial  timbers  of  the 
United  States. 

To  determine  the  relation  between  static  and  impact 
loading  on  the  mechanical  properties  of  wood. 


To  determine  the  effect  of  continuously  applied  loads 
upon  the  mechanical  properties  of  woods. 


Tests  on  structural  timbers. 


Tests  on  redwood 


Tests  on  green  and  air-dried 
western  yellow  pine. 

Tests  on  western  larch.  . _ 

Tests  on  the  mechanical 
efficiency  of  joints  and 
fastenings  in  wooden 
structures. 

Investigation  of  lumber 
waste  in  building  scaffold¬ 
ing,  and  the  introduction 
of  new  methods. 


To  determine  the  mechanical  properties,  and  to  in¬ 
vestigate  the  influence  of  different  localities  on 
strength. 

Same  as  above. 

Same  as  above. 

To  determine  the  efficiency  of  various  types  of  joints 
and  fastenings  used  in  wooden  structures. 


To  secure  information  which  will  assist  in  reduction  of 
waste  in  building  scaffolds  and  in  the  possible 
utilization  of  thinnings  for  this  purpose. 


Tests  on  manufactured  articles. 


Tests  of  packing  boxes,  in 
cooperation  with  the  bu¬ 
reau  for  the  safe  transpor¬ 
tation  of  explosives  and 
other  dangerous  articles. 


To  determine  the  suitability  of  various  types  of  boxes 
for  use  in  the  transportation  of  explosives  and  other 
dangerous  articles,  and  to  secure  data  upon  which 
specifications  and  improvements  in  design  of  such 
boxes  may  be  based. 


1  Select  species  for  test  to  correlate  with  Silviculture’s  commercial  tree  studies. 


48 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


A.— MECHANICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  WOODS— Contd. 

Mechanical  properties — Continued . 


Project. 

Object. 

Tests  on  manufactured  arti¬ 
cles — Continued . 

Tests  of  poles . 

To  determine  the  comparative  strength  and  stiffness  of 
various  species  which  are  not  now  used  extensively 
for  poles,  but  which  are  believed  to  be  satisfactory  for 
this  purpose. 

Study  of  wood  which  may  be 
used  as  substitute  for 
dogwood  and  persimmon 
for  the  manufacture  of 
shuttles. 

To  determine  what  woods  are  suitable  substitutes  for 
dogwood  and  persimmon  for  use  as  shuttles. 

Effect  of  preservative  treat¬ 
ments,  etc.,  on  strength. 

Effect  of  commercial  proc¬ 
esses  of  creosoting  on  the 
strength  of  structural 
timbers. 

Effect  of  mechanical  opera¬ 
tive  features  of  pressure 
wood -preserving  plants  on 
the  strength  of  wood . 

Relative  efficiency  of  vari¬ 
ous  wood  preservatives. 

To  determine  the  effect  on  the  strength  of  southern 
yellow  pine  and  Douglas  fir  bridge  stringers  of  treat¬ 
ing  with  creosote  by  the  Bethell  and  boiling  processes. 

To  determine  the  effect  upon  the  strength  of  wood  of  the 
various  steps  and  manipulations  of  commercial  wood¬ 
preserving  processes. 

To  determine,  in  conjunction  with  other  experiments 
to  be  conducted  under  this  project,  the  effect  of 
various  preservatives  on  the  strength  of  wood. 

Physical  properties. 

Fundamental  properties. 

Specific  heat  and  heat  con¬ 
ductivity  of  wood. 
Penetrability  of  woods  to 
liquids  and  gases. 

To  determine  the  specific  heat  and  heat  conductivity 
of  different  woods. 

To  secure  information  on  the  exact  ways  in  which 
liquids  and  gases  penetrate  wood  and  wood  sub¬ 
stances. 

Relation  of  the  hygroscopic 
condition  of  wood  to  tem¬ 
perature  and  vapor  pres¬ 
sures. 

Determination  of  the  heat 
of  absorption  of  water  in 
wood. 

Specific  gravity  of  wood  sub¬ 
stance. 

To  determine  the  hygroscopicity  of  wood,  or  its  relation 
to  atmospheric  moisture  at  various  temperatures. 

To  secure  a  short  method  to  determine  the  relative 
hygroscopicity  of  various  woods. 

To  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  wood  substance. 

Conditioning  experiments. 

Air  seasoning  of  structural 
timber. 

Experiments  with  small 
single  chamber  experi¬ 
mental  kiln. 

Experimental  operation  of 
a  continuous  chamber  dry 
kiln  of  commercial  size. 

Correlate,  analyze,  and  compile  all  available  data  on 
this  subject. 

To  determine  the  best  methods  for  controlling  the 
humidity  and  temperature  conditions  in  the  kiln 
with  different  forms  and  species  of  lumber.  _ 

To  determine  the  best  methods  for  controlling  the 
humidity  and  temperature  conditions  in  a  continu¬ 
ous  chamber  dry  kiln  of  commercial  size. 

1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


49 


A.— MECHANICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  WOODS— Contd. 

Physical  properties — Continued. 


Project. 

Object. 

Conditioning  experiments — 
Continued. 

Operation  of  single  chamber 
dry  kiln  of  commercial 
size. 

Study  of  commercial  proc¬ 
esses  used  in  kilndrying. 

To  determine  the  best  methods  for  controlling  the 
humidity  and  temperature  conditions  in  a  single¬ 
chamber  dry  kiln  of  conmercial  size. 

To  secure  information  regarding  the  present  commercial 
practice  in  use  at  various  types  of  kiln  in  various 
sections  of  the  country. 

Analytical  study  of  artificial 
methods  of  drying  wood. 

To  determine  the  effect  on  wood  of  subjecting  it  to  high 
temperatures  and  pressures,  and  to  various  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  surrounding  medium,  and  the  investiga¬ 
tion  of  the  fundamental  factors  in  the  treatment  and 
seasoning  of  woods. 

General  studies. 

Temperature  changes  in 
wood  under  treatment. 

To  determine  the  temperature  changes  which  occur  in 
wood  when  subjected  to  various  conditions  and 
temperatures  of  the  surrounding  medium 

Experiments  in  gluing 
black-gum  lumber. 

To  determine  methods  of  seasoning  and  conditioning 
which  give  best  results  in  gluing  black-gum  lumber. 

Structure. 

Correlation  of  the  micro¬ 
scopic  structure  of  com¬ 
mercial  woods  with  their 
properties  and  uses. 

To  determine  the  relation  of  the  structure  of  woods  to 
its  properties  and  uses. 

B.— WOOD  PRESERVATION. 


Preservatives. 

General. 

Tests  of  the  comparative  ef¬ 
ficiency  of  various  wood 
preservatives. 

Efficiency  of  various  frac¬ 
tions  of  coal-tar  creosote  in 
protecting  southern  yel¬ 
low  pine  from  marine  bor¬ 
ers. 

Investigations  relating  to 
problems  connected  with 
the  use  of  treated  wood¬ 
block  pavements. 

To  determine  the  relative  efficiency  of  various  pre¬ 
servatives  which  are  in  commercial  use  or  proposed. 

To  secure  data  on  the  comparative  value  of  fractions  of 
creosote  in  preventing  the  ravages  of  marine  borers. 

To  secure  information  which  will  assist  in  solving  the 
problems  which  confront  the  wood-block  paving  in¬ 
dustry.  6 

Physical  and  chemical 
properties. 

Classification  of  authentic 
creosotes. 

To  determine  the  composition  of  creosotes  obtained 
from  commercial  tars  m  this  country  in  order  to  cor¬ 
relate  the  methods  of  production  with  their  composi¬ 
tion  and  properties,  and  to  develop  methods  by 
which  the  important  differences  in  composition 
can  be  distinguished. 

65603°  13  4 

50 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


B.— WOOD  PRESERVATION— Continued. 

Preservatives — Continued. 


Project. 

Object. 

Toxicity. 

Toxicity  of  preservatives 
with  pure  cultures  in  Petri 
dishes  and  jars. 

Fungicidal  properties  of  coal- 
tar  creosote  fractions. 

To  determine  the  relative  toxicity  of  various  preserva¬ 
tives  which  are  in  commercial  use  or  proposed. 

To  secure  data  on  the  comparative  fungicidal  properties 
of  the  various  fractions  of  coal-tar  creosote. 

Processes  new  or  proposed. 

Boucherie  experiments  on 
the  Eldorado  National 
Forest. 

Boucherie  experiments  on 
loblolly  pine. 

To  determine  a  cheap  and  efficient  method  for  treating 
poles  where  costly  preservatives  can  not  be  economi¬ 
cally  secured. 

To  determine  the  practicability  of  using  the  Boucherie 
method  of  treatment  with  loblolly  pine. 

Effect  of  varying  conditions 
during  treatment. 

Experiments  on  mechanical 
operative  features  of  pres¬ 
sure  wood-p  reserving 
plants.  (Project  119.) 

To  investigate  the  effects  of  the  various  operations  on 
the  absorption,  penetration,  and  other  features  of  the 
treatment  of  wood. 

Suitability  of  species. 


Resistance  to  impregnation 
with  preservatives. 

Relative  resistance  of  com¬ 
mercial  angiosperms  to  in¬ 
jection  with  creosote. 

Relative  resistance  of  com¬ 
mercial  gymnosperms  to 
injection  with  creosote. 

Relative  resistance  to  decay. 

Relative  resistance  of  un¬ 
treated  woods  to  decay  by 
pure  cultures  of  fungi  in 
jars.1 

Determination  of  the  mini¬ 
mum  and  maximum  mois¬ 
ture  content  of  wood  which 
permits  the  growth  of 
fungi. 


To  classify  the  various  species  according  to  their  rela¬ 
tive  resistance  to  creosote. 

Same  as  above. 


To  secure  data  which  will  show  the  comparative  dura¬ 
bility  of  different  species  of  woods  grown  in  the 
United  States. 

To  secure  data  which  will  show  the  limits  of  moisture 
in  wood  which  are  necessary  for  the  development  of 
wood -destroying  fungi. 


1  In  conducting  these  experiments  and  in  the  preparation  of  bulletins  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
correlate  and  combine  the  results  with  those  secured  by  the  experiments  of  the  forest  pathologists  on  the 
National  Forests. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


51 


B.— WOOD  PRESERVATION— Continued. 

Cooperative  field  work  and  service  tests. 


Project. 

Object. 

Service  tests. 

4 

Inspection  of  treated  and 
untreated  timbers  of  vari¬ 
ous  forms  placed  under 
actual  conditions  of  serv¬ 
ice. 

To  determine  under  actual  conditions  of  service  the 
comparative  efficiency  of  various  forms  and  species 
treated  with  different  preservatives  and  processes 
and  untreated.  Includes  inspection  of  treated  and 
untreated  ties,  poles,  posts,  mine  timbers,  paving 
blocks,  etc.,  of  various  species  placed  for  test  pur- 

Durability  data  on  untreated 
fence  and  pole  lines  on  the 
National  Forests.1 

Service  tests  on  treated  and 
untreated  eucalyptus 
crossties. 

Service  tests  on  treated  and 
untreated  Douglas  fir  ties. 

poses. 

To  secure  data  on  the  length  of  service  of  untreated  post 
and  pole  lines  constructed  on  the  National  Forests. 

To  secure  data  on  the  suitability  of  this  species  for  ties 

Same  as  above. 

C.-DERIVED  PRODUCTS,  OR  PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  WOOD,  BARK,  LEAVES 

AND  THE  GROWING  TIMBER. 


Pulp  and  paper. 

Mechanical  or  grinding 
processes.2 

Pulp-making  qualities  of 
various  species  of  wood 
other  than  spruce. 

Fundamental  laws  of  grind¬ 
ing. 

To  determine  the  value  of  different  species  for  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  ground-wood  pulp. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  pressure,  speed,  surface  of 
stone,  temperature  of  grinder,  diameter  of  wood,  and 
length  of  time  wood  is  seasoned  on  the  horsepower  per 
ton,  production  per  day,  and  quality  and  yield  of  pulp, 

Effect  of  using  different 
natural  and  artificial  pulp 
stones  on  the  quality  and 
production  of  pulp. 

using  spruce  as  a  species. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  the  Lombard  (natural), 
Walker  (artificial),  and  Hercules  (artificial)  grinding 
stones  on  the  horsepower  per  ton,  production  per  day, 
and  quality  and  yield  of  pulp,  using  spruce  as  a  spe- 

Effect  on  ground-wood  pulp 
of  steaming  or  cooking  the 
wood. 

cies. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  steaming  and  cooking  the 
wood  in  different  ways  upon  the  production,  horse¬ 
power,  and  quality  and  yield  of  pulp  secured. 

Chemical  processes. 

Comparative  pulp-making 
tests  on  various  woods. 

To  determine  the  value  of  different  species  for  pulp 
produced  by  the  soda,  sulphite,  and  sulphate  proc¬ 
esses,  and  the  suitability  of  the  pulps  for  various 
grades  of  paper.  The  following  species  to  be  tested 
in  1912;  Redwood  and  its  bark,  red  fir,  lodgepole 
pine,  weathered  tamarack,  jack  pine, 

1  In  carrying  out  these  experiments,  cooperation  with  the  experiment  station  in  the  district  should  be 

secured. 

2  The  individual  experiments  listed  under  this  heading  will  all  be  conducted  more  or  less  jointly;  that  is 
some  of  the  data  secured  from  one  experiment  will  be  of  assistance  and  use  in  the  other  experiments.  It  is 
important  that  the  various  projects  be  conducted  together  and  at  very  nearly  the  same  time. 


52  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  VOL.  I. 

C—  DERIVED  PRODUCTS,  OR  PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  WOOD,  BARK,  LEAVES, 

AND  THE  GROWING  TIMBER— Continued. 

Pulp  and  paper — Continued. 


Project. 


Object. 


Chemical  processes — Contd. 


.Fundamental  cooking  con¬ 
ditions  in  the  soda  process. 


Study  of  the  fundamental 
cooking  conditions  in  the 
sulphite  process. 

Study  of  the  fundamental 
cooking  conditions  in  the 
sulphate  processes. 

Effect  of  mechanical  treat¬ 
ments  on  the  quality  of 
chemical  pulps. 

Effect  of  preliminary  treat¬ 
ments  with  steam .  and 
vacuum  on  the  cooking  of 
chemical  pulps. 


To  ’determine  the  effect  of  the  fundamental  cooking 
conditions  on  the  yield  and  qualities  of  pulp,  cost  of 
production,  and  consumption  of  wood  and  chemicals, 
aspen  to  be  used  as  a  standard  species  and  results  to 
be  checked  with  other  species. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  the  fundamental  cooking 
conditions  on  the  yield  and  qualities  of  pulp,  cost  of 
production,  and  consumption  of  wood  and  chemicals,  J 
white  spruce  to  be  used  as  the  standard  species  and 
results  to  be  checked  with  other  species.  .  j 

To  determine  the  effect  of  the  fundamental  cooking 
conditions  on  the  yield  and  qualities  of  pulp,  cost  of  * 
production,  and  consumption  of  wood  and  chemicals. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  various  mechanical  treat¬ 
ments  of  chemical  pulp  on  its  quality. 

To  secure  data  on  the  effect  on  chemical  pulp  of  pre¬ 
liminary  treatments  prior  to  cooking. 


Wood  distillation. 


Hardwoods. 


Destructive  distillation  of 
hardwoods. 


Methods  for  increasing  the 
yields  of  valuable  prod¬ 
ucts  in  the  destructive 
distillation  of  hardwoods. 

Study  of  the  refining  meth¬ 
ods  for  hardwood  distil¬ 
lates. 


To  determine  the  yields  of  valuable  products  whictj 
can  be  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  various  specie  i 
of  hardwoods  not  used  for  this  purpose  at  present. 

The  following  species  to  be  tested  in  1912:  Birch,  maple  i 
and  beech  (tested  for  purposes  of  comparison  with  othe:  i 
species);  oak,  red  gum,  hickory,  and  chestnut. 

To  determine  what  methods  will  result  in  the  greatest 
yield  of  valuable  products  secured  in  destructive! 
distillation  of  hardwoods. 

To  determine  best  methods  for  refining  hardwoocj 
distillates  in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  quantity  o  j 
valuable  products. 


Resinous  woods. 


Distillation  experiments  on 
northwestern  woods  in 
cooperation  with  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Washington. 

Study  of  methods  and  proc¬ 
esses  used  in  securing 
rosin  by  extraction  from 
the  wood  with  chemicals. 


To  secure  information  regarding  the  value  of  north 
western  woods  for  distillation. 

To  secure  data  regarding  “extraction”  methods  fo 
securing  rosin. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


53 


C.— DERIVED  PRODUCTS,  OR  PRODUCTS  DERIVED  FROM  WOOD,  BARK,  LEAVES, 

AND  THE  GROWING  TIMBER— Continued. 

Naval  stores. 


Project. 

Object. 

The  naval-stores  industry. . . 

General  review  of  past  and  present  methods,  and 
recommendations. 

Turpentine  experiments . 

To  determine  the  value  for  turpentining  of  the  follow¬ 
ing  species:  Digger  pine,  western  yellow  pine,  sugar 
pine,  lodgepole  pine,  Jeffrey  pine,  and  Douglas  fir. 

Miscellaneous. 

Production  of  ethyl  alcohol 
from  wood. 

Production  of  tanning  ma¬ 
terials  from  woods  and 
barks. 

Investigations  into  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  producer  gas 
from  wood  waste. 

Investigation  of  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  volatile  oils  from 
leaves  and  needles  of  va¬ 
rious  conifers. 

Comparison  of  the  chemical 
composition  of  different 
woods. 


To  determine  the  best  conditions  for  digestion  of  the 
wood,  such  as  diameter,  time,  pressure,  and  kind  and 
amount  of  acid,  for  the  production  of  ethyl  alcohol. 

To  make  experiments  with  various  species  from  time 
to  time  as  is  deemed  advisable  to  determine  their 
value  for  the  production  of  tannin. 

To  determine  the  economic  value  of  the  manufacture 
of  producer  gas  from  wood  waste. 

To  determine  the  character  and  quantity  of  the  volatile 
oils  which  can  be  secured  from  the  leaves,  needles, 
and  cones  of  various  conifers. 

To  secure  information  regarding  the  chemical  com¬ 
position  of  different  species. 


D.— STATISTICAL  STUDIES. 


Annual  production  of  forest  products. 


Collection  of  statistics  of 
forest  products  in  coopera¬ 
tion  with  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census. 


To  show  in  detail  the  annual  demand  upon  each  kind 
of  wood  in  the  forests  of  the  United  States,  the 
fluctuation  in  years  of  prosperity  and  depression, 
tendencies  in  wood  utilization,  changing  use  of 
species,  and  progress  in  methods  to  increase  the 
service  of  wood. 


Uses  of  woods. 


Study  of  the  uses  of  commer¬ 
cial  woods. 

By  States . 

By  industries . 

By  species . 


To  secure  authentic  information  and  statistics  regard¬ 
ing  the  present  uses  of  the  various  commercial  woods 
in  the  United  States. 

To  make  an  inventory  of  the  annual  demand  by  the 
various  wood-consuming  industries  in  each  State  for 
raw  material. 

To  secure  authentic  statistics  and  information  regarding 
the  uses  of  different  woods  classified  by  industries. 

To  secure  authentic  statistics  and  information  regarding 
the  uses  of  different  woods  classified  by  species. 


54 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vol.  I. 


D.— STATISTICAL  STUDIES— Continued. 


Lumber  prices. 

Project. 

Object. 

Quarterly  statistics  on  lum¬ 
ber  prices  f.  o.  b.  mills. 

To  secure  periodically  wholesale  prices  of  lumber  at 
representative  mills  in  different  sections  of  the  coun- 

Quarterly  statistics  on  lum¬ 
ber  prices  f.  o.  b.  markets. 

try. 

To  secure  periodically  wholesale  lumber  prices  at  rep¬ 
resentative  markets  in  different  sections  of  the 
country. 

Collection  of  statistics  on 
wood  preservatives  con¬ 
sumed  and  kind  and  quan¬ 
tity  of  timber  annually 
treated  in  the  United 
States. 

Service  tests  of  eucalyptus 
and  tan-bark  oak  for  coop¬ 
erage,  cross-arms,  and  in¬ 
sulator  pins. 

Miscellaneous. 

To  secure  data  on  the  kind  and  quantity  of  wood  pre¬ 
servatives  annually  consumed,  and  kind  and  quan¬ 
tity  of  material  annually  treated. 

To  secure  data  on  the  suitability  of  eucalyptus  and 
tan-bark  oak  for  cooperage,  cross-arms,  and  insulator 
pins. 

Mill  scale  studies. 

[See  “  Silviculture — Mensuration.”] 


SILVICULTURE. 

A.— FORESTATION. 

General. 

Reforestation  in  the  East. . . . 

To  obtain  reliable  data  as  to  the  results  of  planting  in 
the  East  with  different  species  as  a  basis  for  recom¬ 
mendations  to  the  farmers,  and  incidentally  secure 
data  on  growth,  volume,  and  yield  of  the  different 

Reforestation . 

f 

species. 

To  prepare  manual  of  nursery  work  and  field  planting. 

Seed.  i 

Seed-storage  experiments _ 

To  determine  the  best  method,  temperature,  and  geo¬ 
graphical  location  for  the  storage  of  seed. 

Physical  characteristics  and 
vitality  of  forest- tree  seeds. 

To  obtain  information  as  to  the  germinability,  variation 
in  size  of  the  same  species  but  from  different  sources, 
and  other  physical  and  biological  properties  of  the 
seeds  of  coniferous  species. 

Influence  of  age  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  tree  upon  seed 
production  in  western 
yellow  pine. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  age  and  condition  of  seed 
trees  upon  the  quality  of  seed  produced  and  resulting 
generation. 

1918. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


55 


A.— FORESTATION— Continued. 

Seed — Continued . 

Project.  Object. 


Seed  cleaning: 

Western  yellow  pine _ 

Seed  extraction: 

District  1 — 

Eastern  white  pine, 
Norway  pine, 
jack  pine,  west¬ 
ern  larch. 

District  2 — 

Lodgepole  pine . 


Lodgepole  pine 


Lodgepole  pin 

Seed  testing: 

District  7 . 

District  1 . 


District  3 


Comparative  germina¬ 
tion  in  the  greenhouse 
and  field. 

Seed  production: 

Western  white  pine, 
lodgepole  pine,  Doug¬ 
las  fir,  yellow  pine, 
Engelmann  spruce. 

Source  of  seed: 

District  1 . . 

District  2 — 

Douglas  fir,  yellow 
pine,  lodgepole 
pine,  Engelmann 
spruce. 

District  3 . 


To  determine  the  effects  of  moisture  treatment  for  the 
removal  of  wings  from  western  yellow-pine  seed. 


To  determine  the  best  temperature  and  conditions  for 
extraction  of  seed . 


To  determine  the  relative  value  of  lodgepole-pine  seed 
extracted  at  various  periods  during  the  fall  and  win¬ 
ter. 

To  determine  the  limitation  on  heat,  soaking,  etc.,  de¬ 
sirable  in  the  extraction  of  lodgepole-pine  seed.  ’  To 
determine  also  the  merits  of  wet  and  dry  cleaning  of 
seed. 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  opening  cones  of  lodge¬ 
pole  pine  in  direct  flame. 

To  determine  the  true  value  of  seed  collected  in  the 
districts. 

To  determine  the  germinating  power  of  samples  of  seed 
used  in  the  district;  also  for  the  purpose  of  deter¬ 
mining  the  results  of  seed-extracting  methods. 

To  determine  the  germinating  power  of  all  seed  samples, 
concerning  which  information  is  desired  for  the  next 
season’s  sowing  in  the  district. 

To  determine  the  comparative  germination  of  seed 
tested  in  the  greenhouse  with  that  which  occurs  in 
actual  field  operations. 

To  develop  a  method  for  determining  the  amount  of 
seed  produced,  and  determine  the  periodicity  of  seed 
years  of  different  species. 


To  test  the  source  of  seed  of  western  yellow  pine,  white 
pine,  and  Douglas  fir. 

To  determine  the  relative  value  at  a  middle  point  of 
seed  and  stock  from  the  middle,  northern,  and  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  the  range  of  the  species. 

To  determine  the  suitability  of  seed  of  western  yellow 
pine  from  different  sources  to  local  conditions. 


56 


REVIEW  OP  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


A — FORESTATION— Continued. 


Nursery. 

Project. 

Object. 

Nursery  practice: 

District  1 . 

To  test  different  amounts  of  seed  for  seed  beds,  methods 

District  2 . 

* 

of  sowing,  and  depth  of  covering. 

To  determine  the  final  effects  of  different  degrees  of 
watering  in  the  nursery  on  the  stock  when  it  is  set  out 
in  the  field;  the  effect  of  shading  for  different  periods 
on  the  hardiness  of  trees  when  placed  in  the  field; 
the  relative  values  of  manure,  leaf  compost,  and 
commercial  fertilizers;  the  best  time  for  transplanting 
and  the  latitude  in  time  of  safety  in  spring  trans¬ 
planting  operations;  the  most  advantageous  seasons 
for  seed  sowing  in  the  nurseries;  the  best  depth  for 
sowing  seed  in  seed  spots  and  in  the  nursery;  the 
effect  on  root  development  of  Engelmann  spruce  of 
pruning  roots  at  time  of  transplanting;  the  effect  on 
root  and  crown  development  of  square  and  oblong 
spacing  in  the  transplant  beds. 

District  3 . 

To  determine  various  phases  of  nursery  practice,  such 
as  the  preparation  of  the  beds,  amount  of  seed  of  dif¬ 
ferent  species  to  be  usefl  per  seed  bed,  watering,  and 
shading;  the  effect  of  spacing  and  the  methods  of 
preparation  of  the  ground  upon  the  development  of 

Districts  2  and  3 . 

the  root  system. 

To  determine  whether  it  is  practicable  to  grow  stock 
near  the  planting  site  without  watering  and  much 
care. 

District  4 . 

4 

To  determine  to  what  extent  small  and  weak  trees  can 
be  eliminated  from  the  nursery  by  the  use  of  seed 
graded  by  weight. 

District  5 . 

To  carry  on  experiments  to  determine  the  proper 
amounts  of  seed  of  different  species  which  should  be 
sown  in  nursery  beds;  to  determine  the  depth  of 
cover,  the  proper  seasons  and  methods  for  sowing  the 
seed  beds,  etc. 

District  6 . 

Same  as  above. 

Species,  methods,  and  seasons. 


Experimental  planting: 

District  1 — 

Norway  spruce,  su¬ 
gar  pine,  bass¬ 
wood,  white  ash, 
shagbark  hickory , 
western  white 

pine,  yellow  pine, 
Douglas  fir. 

District  2 — 

Yellow  pine . 

To  test  the  suitability  of  different  species  to  northern 
Idaho. 

To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  planting  in 
the  following  subdistricts:  Southeastern,  northeast¬ 
ern,  and  in  Kansas  sand  hills. 

Scotch  pine . 

To  compare  the  value  of  Scotch  pine  for  the  north  slope 
of  the  sand  hills,  and  also  for  the  moister  sites  in  the 
Pikes  Peak  region;  and  to  determine  its  relative 
merits  for  Kansas  sand-hill  planting. 

Austrian  pine . 

To  determine  comparative  value  of  Austrian  pine  for 
planting  on  certain  areas  of  the  western  yellow-pine 
type,  and  its  relative  merits  for  Kansas  sand-hill 
planting. 

1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


57 


A. — FORESTATION — Continued. 

Species,  methods ,  and  seasons — Continued. 


Project. 


Experimental  planting — Con. 

District  2 — Continued. 

Lodgepole  pine . 

Eastern  white  pine, 
western  white 
pine,  Norway 
spruce,  Norway 
pine,  Japanese 
larch,  sugar  ma¬ 
ple. 

Black  locust  and 
honey  locust. 

Engelmann  spruce.. 

Douglas  fir . 

Experimental  planting  and 
sowing : 1 

District  3 — 

Western  yellow 
pine. 


Douglas  fir 


Jeffrey  pine 


Alligator  juniper. . . . 

Arizona  cypress.  . . . 

Black  locust,  white 
elm,  green  ash, 
desert  willow, 
honey  locust, 
Russian  olive, 
Norway  spruce, 
limber  pine. 
District  5 — 

Sugar  pine,  yellow 
pine,  Douglas  fir, 
white  fir,  incense 
cedar. 

Eucalyptus . 

District  6 — 


Object. 


To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  planting  in 
the  northwestern  subdistrict. 

To  find  species  which  would  be  adapted  to  the  moister 
sites  in  the  Pikes  Peak  region. 


To  determine  relative  merits  for  Kansas  sand-hill  plant¬ 
ing  on  plowed  and  cultivated  ground. 

To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  planting  in 
the  southeastern  and  northwestern  subdistricts. 

To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  planting  in 
the  southeastern,  southwestern,  and  northeastern 
subdistricts. 


To  test  experimentally  western  yellow  pine  on  a  com¬ 
paratively  large  scale  on  different  Forests  and  on 
different  sites.  Also  to  reforest  by  means  of  the  seed- 
spot  method. 

To  determine  the  best  method  of  planting  western  yel¬ 
low  pine  in  pots  and  with  balls. 

To  test  experimentally  Douglas  fir  on  a  comparatively 
large  scale  on  different  Forests  and  on  different  sites; 
to  reforest  by  means  of  the  seed-spot  method;  and  to 
determine  the  best  time  of  planting. 

To  test  experimentally  Jeffrey  pine  on  a  comparatively 
large  scale  on  different  Forests  and  on  different  sites, 
and  to  reforest  by  means  of  the  seed-spot  method. 

To  find  a  practical  way  of  handling  alligator  juniper 
seed  and  to  determine  its  behavior  by  the  seed-spot 
method. 

To  determine  the  suitability  of  Arizona  cypress  for 
reforestation  in  Arizona. 

To  determine  the  suitability  of  these  species  to  local 
conditions  and  the  behavior  of  less  common  species 
in  artificial  planting. 


To  determine  the  best  season  and  the  best  methods  for 
sowing  and  planting  important  species  on  favorable 
and  unfavorable  sites. 

To  determine  experimentally  the  suitability  of  the  less 
common  species  to  different  sites  in  southern  Cali¬ 
fornia. 


Douglas  Fir. 


To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  direct 
seeding  and  planting  in  lower  slope  type  west  of  Cas¬ 
cade  Mountains;  on  denuded  areas  within  various 
types  in  the  Siskiyou  Mountains;  in  humid  coast 
region,  Siuslaw  Forest;  and  on  denuded  areas  on 
slope  type  of  Blue  Mountain  region. 

projects6 whfch  are to^er  vt^as  a  r hlr  k  mi sI)eo ies.’  sites,  methods,  and  seasons  are  listed  under  specific 
V  jcoii  wmcn  are  to  sen  e  as  a  check  on  this  experimental  planting  on  a  large  scale. 


58 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


A.— FORESTATION— Continued. 

Species,  methods,  and  seasons — Continued. 


Project. 


Object. 


Experimental  planting  and 
sowing — Continued. 
District  6 — Continued. 
Western  yellow  pine 


Sugar  pine,  Sitka 
spruce,  Scotch 
pine. 


Eastern  hardwood 
species. 


To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  direct 
seeding  and  planting  on  denuded  areas  within  various 
types  in  the  Siskiyou  Mountains;  on  denuded  areas 
in  slope  type  of  northeast  Washington;  and  on  de¬ 
nuded  areas  on  slope  type  of  Blue  Mountain  region. 

To  determine  Ihe  best  method  and  season  of  direct 
seeding  and  planting  on  denuded  areas  within  various 
types  in  the  Siskiyou  Mountains;  in  humid  coast 
region  of  Siuslaw  Forest;  and  on  denuded  areas  on 
slope  type  of  Blue  Mountain  region. 

To  determine  the  suitability  of  eastern  hardwood 
species  to  bottom  lands  and  slope  types  west  of  the 
Cascades,  and  to  a  very  small  extent  east  of  the  Cas¬ 
cades. 


District  7 — 

Loblolly  pine 


Maritime  pine . 

Cork  oak,  shortleaf 
pine,  1  o  n  g  1  9  a  f 
pine. 

Eucalyptus  plant¬ 
ing  in  Florida. 

Effect  of  cultivation 
upon  success  of 
planting. 

Stock  for  field  plant¬ 
ing— 

Jack  pine,  yel¬ 
low  pine, 
Scotch  pine. 

Sheep  bedding . 

Aspen  cover . 

Effect  of  an  aspen 
nurse  in  Douglas- 
fir  planting. 

Comparison  of  dif¬ 
ferent  classes  of 
stock  in  planting: 
Douglas  fir,  Jef¬ 
frey  pine,  yellow 
pine. 

Field  planting  with 
graded  stock. 

Effect  of  holding 
nursery  stock  over 
winter  on  plant¬ 
ing  areas  upon  the 
success  of  field 
planting. 


Reforestation  studies;  experimental  seeding  and  plant¬ 
ing  in  cooperation  with  New  Jersey  and  South 
Carolina. 

Same  as  above. 

Experimental  planting  in  cooperation  with  South  Caro¬ 
lina  to  determine  the  value  of  the  different  species 
for  forestation  in  the  southeastern  pine  belt. 

To  test  the  suitability  of  the  different  species  of  eucalyp¬ 
tus  to  different  sections  of  Florida,  in  cooperation 
with  the  State  in  the  Everglades,  and  in  coopeiation 
with  the  Tampa  Board  of  Trade  at  Tampa. 

To  determine  the  influence  of  cultivation  in  its  relation 
to  ground  cover  on  the  success  of  planting  operations. 


To  determine  the  best  stock  (seedling  or  transplant)  for 
field  planting. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  continuous  bedding  of  sheep 
on  reforestation  or  natural  reproduction. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  aspen  cover  on  the  success  of 
sowing  with  Engelmann  spruce  and  Douglas  fir. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  an  aspen  nurse  upon  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  Douglas-fir  planting. 

To  determine  the  relative  value  of  different  classes  of 
stock  for  field  planting. 


To  determine  to  what  extent  better  results  in  field 
planting  can  be  obtained  through  careful  grading  of 
planting  stock. 

To  determine  the  advisability  of  shipping  nursery  stock 
to  planting  areas  in  the  fall  to  be  held  there  until 
planting  operations  commence  in  the  spring. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


59 


A.— FORESTATION — Continued. 


Sites . 

Project. 

Object. 

Habitat  extension: 

Yellow  pine . 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  growing  yellow  pine  in 
the  pinon-juniper  type. 

To  determine  the  most  successful  method  and  season 

Douglas  fir . 

of  sowing  on  ground  bearing  a  fair  stand  of  seed 
trees  and  also  open  sagebrush  parks. 

To  determine  the  possibility*of  using  Douglas  fir  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  Engelmann  spruce  type. 

Planting  in  parks . 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  growing  trees  in  the 
open  parks. 

Planting  on  brush-covered, 
timberless  slopes:  (a)  Yel¬ 
low  pine,  ( b )  Douglas  fir. 

Comparison  of  sites  for  west¬ 
ern  yellow-pine  planting. 

Reforestation  in  bear  clover 
areas. 

To  determine  whether  it  is  possible  to  plant  southerly 
steep  slopes  covered  with  oak  brush  and  what  species 
should  be  used. 

To  determine  the  relative  value  of  different  sites  for 
yellow-pine  planting  in  District  3. 

To  determine  the  best  method  by  which  the  extensive 
bear  clover  areas  can  be  gradually  transformed  into  a 
forest.  Study  similar  to  the  brush  field  study  in 
northern  California. 

Forest  extension  into  the 
northern  brush  fields. 

To  determine  the  best  method  and  species  to  plant  in 
the  brush  fields  of  northern  California  so  as  to  grad¬ 
ually  extend  the  forest  into  the  brush  fields  which 
once  were  a  forest. 

Planting  on  pumice  soil: 
Western  yellow  pine  in 
District  6. 

To  determine  the  best  method  and  season  of  planting 
western  yellow  pine  on  light,  pumice  soils,  east  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains. 

Introduction  of  exotics. 


A  study  of  California  exotics 
of  possible  economic  value 
in  this  country. 

To  determine,  by  a  study  of  the  results  obtained  by  the 
cultivation  of  various  exotics  in  California,  their 
possible  potential  range  in  this  country  and  their 
probable  economic  value,  together  with  data  as  to 
conditions  best  adapted  to  their  success. 

Maritime  pine . 

To  bring  together  the  available  information  as  to  the 
possibilities  of  introducing  maritime  pine  as  a  source 
of  naval  stores  in  this  country. 

Cork  oak . 

To  furnish  information  as  to  the  possibilities  of  the  cork 
oak  in  this  country  as  source  of  the  commercial  cork . 

Special. 


Experimental  work  in  bas¬ 
ket-willow  culture. 

To  secure  improved  varieties  of  basket  willows;  to 
develop  better  cultural  methods  in  growing  willows; 
to  secure  better  methods  and  devices  in  handling 

Development  of  American 
species  of  basket  willows. 

rods;  to  encourage  growing  of  willows  on  land  suited 
to  the  purpose. 

To  secure  varieties  of  basket  willows  better  adapted  to 
American  conditions  than  the  European  species  now 
grown.  Hardiness  and  continued  vigorous  growth 
are  the  principal  characteristics  desired. 

60 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


Vo L.  I. 


A.— FORESTATION— Continued. 


Special — Continued . 

Project. 

Object. 

Cooperative  basket  willow 
growing  experiment  in 
New  Jersey  with  the  For¬ 
est  Park  Reserv  a  t  i  o  n 
Commission  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey. 

Sand  dune  control . 

To  test  the  possibility  of  growing  basket  willows  on  the 
cheap  sandy  lands  of  New  Jersey. 

To  test  various  means  of  direct  reforestation  of  the  sand 
dunes  on  the  Siuslaw  National  Forest. 

To  determine  the  extent  to  which  erosion  of  a  gully 
may  be  checked  by  willow  planting. 

• 

Erosion . 

B.— INFLUENCES. 

Effect  of  forests  upon  stream 
flow  in  Southern  Appa¬ 
lachian. 

Relation  of  forest  to  stream 
flow. 

A  comparative  meteorologi¬ 
cal  study  of  “parks”  and 
timbered  areas. 

The  influence  of  a  forest 
cover  upon  the  accumula¬ 
tion  and  rate  of  melting 
snow  and  upon  run-off. 

Effect  of  forest  cover  on 
stream  flow. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  forest  cover  upon  stream  flow 
and  erosion  in  the  Southern  Appalachians. 

To  keep  abreast  with  the  literature  on  the  subject. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  forest  cover  upon  climate  of 
the  area  occupied  by  it,  as  compared  with  the  open 
“park.” 

To  determine  to  what  extent  and  in  what  manner 
virgin  western  yellow-pine  forests  affect  the  amount 
of  snow  reaching  the  ground,  the  rate  of  melting,  and 
the  amount  of  run-off. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  forest  cover  on  run-off  and 
erosion. 

C.— MANAGEMENT. 

General. 


N  orth  eastern  hardwoods 
(beech,  yellow  birch,  and 
maple). 

Woodlot  study  for  central 
New  York. 

Second-growth  hardwoods  in 
the  Hudson  River  Valley. 

Forestry  for  coal-mine  own¬ 
ers. 

Management  of  hardwood 
forests  in  the  Southern 
Appalachians. 

Forest  management  of  the 
hardwood  bottom  lands  of 
the  southeastern  United 
States. 


Silvicultural  study  with  special  reference  to  growth  and 
volume. 

To  obtain  a  series  of  regional  woodlot  studies. 

Same  as  above. 

To  furnish  information  regarding  the  handling  of  tim¬ 
ber  lands  for  coal  mines. 

To  furnish  information  regarding  the  management  of 
the  different  hardwood  species  in  the  Southern  Ap¬ 
palachians. 

To  suggest  system  of  forest  management  for  the  south¬ 
ern  hardwood  bottom  species. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


61 


Project. 


Effect  of  different  methods 
of  cutting  in  different 
types  upon  growth  and 
natural  reproduction,  Dis¬ 
trict  1. 

Methods  of  cutting,  Dis¬ 
trict  2: 

Lodgepole  pine . 


Balsam  type . 

Mixed  lodgepole  pine 
and  Engelmann 
spruce  types. 

Results  of  different  systems 
of  marking,  District  3. 

Effect  of  seasons  and  meth¬ 
ods  of  cutting  in  woodland 
type,  District  3. 

Different  methods  of  mark¬ 
ing  and  cutting,  Dis¬ 
trict  4: 

Idaho  yellow  pine . 

Aspen  in  Utah . 

Effect  of  different  methods 
of  cutting  upon  natural  re¬ 
production  in  Jeffrey  pine, 
sugar  pine,  mixed  type  of 
yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir, 
and  white  fir. 

Methods  of  cutting  in  the 
yellow  pine  and  Douglas 
fir  types,  District  6. 

Cut-over  areas: 

District  1 . 


District  3 . 

District  5 . 

District  6 . 

Felling  snags  and  diseased 
trees. 


MANAGEMENT— Continued. 

Methods  of  cutting. 

Object. 


To  ascertain  the  best  silvicultural  system  of  cutting  in 
western  white  pine,  western  larch,  and  western  yel¬ 
low-pine  types. 


To  determine  the  effect  of  various  methods  of  cutting 
in  mature  lodgepole  pine  stands  in  inducing  repro¬ 
duction. 

To  determine  a  method  of  cutting  which  will  favor 
spruce  reproduction  over  balsam  in  mixed  stands  of 
these  two  species. 

To  determine  the  method  of  cutting  most  likely  to  favor 
Engelmann  spruce  reproduction  where  it  occurs  in 
mixture  with  lodgepole  pine. 

To  determine  the  comparative  merits  of  one  system  of 
marking  over  the  other. 

To  determine  the  conditions  under  which  the  cutting  in 
woodland  type  results  in  best  regeneration  of  the 
stand.  Coronado  Forest. 


To  determine  the  best  method  of  cutting  in  the  Idaho 
yellow-pine  forest. 

To  determine  the  best  methods  of  cutting  in  aspen 
stands. 

To  determine  the  best  method  of  cutting  upon  natural 
reproduction  and  growth  of  remaining  stand. 


To  determine  the  best  method  of  cutting  in  Douglas  fir 
and  yellow  pine  so  as  to  secure  natural  reproduction 
and  the  best  growth  of  the  remaining  trees. 

To  determine  the  conditions 'under  which  natural  re¬ 
production  takes  place  on  areas  cut-over  under  dif¬ 
ferent  conditions  as  a  basis  for  proper  silvicultural 
handling  of  timber  sales. 

To  determine  rate  of  growth  and  loss,  rate  of  regenera¬ 
tion  and  effect  of  various  factors  upon  regeneration. 

Same  as  above. 

To  determine  the  progress  of  natural  reproduction  on 
cut-over  areas. 

To  determine  the  actual  cost  of  felling  snags  and  dis¬ 
eased  trees,  as  means  of  improving  condition  of  the 
Forest,  and  to  ascertain  its  bearing  upon  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  stumpage  rates. 


62 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


C.— MANAGEMENT — Continued. 


Brush  disposal. 

Project. 

Object. 

Effect  of  scattering  brush 
after  logging  upon  repro¬ 
duction,  District  3. 

Brush  disposal: 

District  4,  Idaho  yel¬ 
low  pine. 

District  5 . 

To  determine  the  effects  of  scattering  the  brush  after 
logging  upon  reproduction  in  western  yellow-pine 
stands. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  different  methods  of  brush 
disposal  upon  natural  reproduction. 

To  determine  the  cost  and  method  of  brush  disposal. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  the  removal  of  brush  upon 
the  development  of  seedlings. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  brush  disposal  upon  natural 
reproduction. 

District  6 . 

Natural  reproduction. 


The  loss  of  seedlings  in  the 
forest  during  the  early 
stages  of  development. 

Reproduction  on  burns . 

Pole  and  sapling  competi¬ 
tion. 


To  determine  the  rate  of  loss  of  seedlings  during  the 
early  stages  of  development  and  the  factors  respon¬ 
sible  for  it. 

To  determine  the  progress  of  reproduction  on  burned- 
over  areas. 

To  determine  the  competition  between  the  various 
species  and  to  observe  the  replacement  of  brush  on 
an  adjoining  south  slope. 


Thinnings. 


District  2: 

Yellow  pine. . . 

Lodgepole  pine 


Douglas  fir  and  Engel- 
mann  spruce. 

District  4 : 

Aspen  in  Utah . 

District  5: 

Douglas  fir . 

Mixed  yellow  pine, 
white  fir,  and  incense 
cedar. 


To  determine  the  effect  of  different  degrees  of  thinning 
in  young  yellow-pine  stands. 

To  compare  the  rate  of  growth  and  increment  of  the 
trees  left  after  thinning  with  the  increment  on  new 
stands  obtained  by  clear  cutting. 

To  determine  best  degrees  of  thinning  in  sapling 
lodgepole-pine  stands. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  thinning  from  beneath  and 
thinning  from  above. 

To  determine  the  best  density  in  lodgepole  sapling 
stands  about  40  years  old. 

To  determine  effect  of  different  degrees  of  thinnings  in 
young  stands. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  thinning  upon  the  remain¬ 
ing  stand. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  thinning  upon  the  growth  of 
the  remaining  stand. 

To  determine  the  comparative  merits  of  different 
degrees  and  frequency  of  thinning. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OP  WORK. 


63 


C.— MANAGEMENT— Continued. 

Valuation. 


Project. 

/ 

Object. 

Valuation  of  young  growth 
with  reference  particu¬ 
larly  to  fire  damage. 

Valuation  of  land  for  agri¬ 
cultural  and  forest  uses. 

To  determine  the  value  of  young  growth  with  particu¬ 
lar  reference  to  fire  damage. 

To  determine  the  value  of  land  for  agricultural  and 
forest  uses. 

D.— MENSURATION. 

Volume,  growth,  and  yield: 
District  1 — 

Douglas  fir,  larch .  . . 
Lodgepole  pine . 

Western  white  pine, 
western  yellow 
pine. 

District  2 — 

Lodgepole  pine . 


Western  yellow 
pine. 


Engelmann  spruce. . 

Growth  of  western  yellow 
pine  stands  before  and 
after  cutting,  District  3. 

Growth,  volume,  and  yield 
studies,  District  4. 

Yellow  pine  in  Idaho _ 

Aspen  in  Utah . 

i 

Solid  contents  of  cord  wood, 
District  5. 

Growth  and  yield,  District  6. 

Fundamental  laws  of  tree 
growth  and  comparative 
rapidity  of  growth  of  forest 
trees,  District  7. 


Mill  scale  studies,  in  coopera¬ 
tion  with  the  Branch  of 
Products: 

Douglas  fir . 


Blue  gum 


To  secure  data  on  growth,  volume,  and  yield. 

To  secure  data  on  volume,  growth,  and  yield  for  the  less 
favorable  sites  on  the  Deerlodge  Forest. 

To  secuie  growth,  volume,  and  yield  data. 


To  construct  volume  tables  which  will  be  of  value  for 
more  than  simple  local  use. 

To  obtain  data  for  the  construction  of  growth  and  yield 
tables. 

To  construct  volume  tables  which  will  be  of  value  for 
more  than  local  use. 

To  obtain  data  for  the  construction  of  growth  and  yield 
tables. 

To  construct  volume  tables  which  will  be  of  value  for 
more  than  local  use. 

To  determine  the  growth  for  stands  before  and  after  a 
selection  cutting;  also  a  comparison  of  the  different 
methods  of  determining  the  growth  percentage 
before  and  after  cutting. 


To  secure  growth,  volume,  and  yield  data  as  a  basis  for 
management  of  Idaho  yellow-pine  forests. 

To  secure  growth,  volume,  and  yield  data  of  aspen  as 
a  basis  for  the  management  of  aspen  stands. 

To  ascertain  the  actual  solid  contents  of  cord  wood  as  a 
basis  for  estimating  timber  for  pulp  wood. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  various  conditions  of  soil 
density  upon  the  growth  of  stands  in  different  types. 

To  establish  the  general  relationship  between  the 
various  geometrical  characteristics  of  trees  which 
would  enable  us  to  develop  quick  methods  of  deter¬ 
mining  the  volume  and  yield  of  standing  trees  and 
forests  and  to  furnish  a  basis  for  comparing  different 
species  as  to  their  growth  and  development. 


To  determine  the  percentage  of  clear  and  common 
lumber  obtained  from  each  grade  of  Douglas-fir  logs 
in  the  Columbia  River  and  Puget  Sound  regions. 
To  obtain  a  mill  tally  of  blue-gum  logs. 


64 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


E.— PROTECTION. 

Fire. 


Project. 


Object. 


Methods  of  fire  protection . . . 

Progress  of  the  States  in 
forestry  and  fire  protec¬ 
tion,  and  digest  of  State 
forest  and  fire  laws: 

Forest  fires  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 


Recovery  of  chaparral 
from  fire. 

Growing  green  fire¬ 
breaks. 

Effect  of  light  burning. . 

Fire  damage  in  mature 
timber. 

Influence  of  grazing  in 
preventing  damage  by 
fire. 


To  determine  the  best  methods  of  fire  protection. 


To  ascertain  the  causes  of  forest  fires,  such  as  lightning 
and  other  climatic  causes,  extent  of  damage,  together 
with  historical  data  concerning  the  large  conflagra¬ 
tions. 

To  determine  the  after  effects  of  fire,  and  the  number  of 
years  necessary  to  reestablish  a  chaparral  cover. 

To  maintain  firebreaks  by  growing  mesembryanthemum 
and  similar  fire  resistant  species  to  the  exclusion  of 
chaparral . 

To  determine  the  effect  of  frequent  light  burnings  upon 
the  forest. 

To  determine  the  effect  of  fire  upon  the  growth  of 
mature  timber. 

To  determine  the  value  of  grazing  (1)  in  preventing 
forest  fires;  (2)  in  decreasing  difficulty  of  fighting 
fires. 


Grazing. 


Effect  of  grazing  on  the  re¬ 
production  of  western  yel¬ 
low  pine,  and  plan  of 
management  for  grazing 
on  yellow-pine  lands  in 
District  3. 

Management  of  grazing  in 
the  yellow-pine  type  in 
District  4. 

Effect  of  grazing  on  tree  re¬ 
production. 


Effect  of  grazing  on  growth 
and  reproduction  of  aspen 
in  Utah. 

Recuperation  of  different 
tree  species  from  injuries 
by  grazing. 

Effect  of  grazing  on  the  re¬ 
duction  of  fire  risk.. 

Effect  of  sheep  grazing  on 
yellow-pine  reproduction. 


To  determine  the  amount  and  severity  of  damage,  and 
to  collect  information  to  use  as  a  basis  for  proper 
management  of  grazing  in  the  yellow-pine  type  of  the 
Southwest. 


To  secure  authentic  information  upon  which  to  base 
definite  management  of  sheep  grazing  on  approxi¬ 
mately  eight  million  acres  of  yellow-pine  land  in  Dis¬ 
trict  4.  .  ...  \ 

To  determine  (1)  the  percentage  of  seedlings  injured  by 
sheep,  cattle,  and  goats  for  each  species,  of  locality; 

(2)  relation  of  intensity  of  injury  to  intensity  of 
grazing,  season  of  grazing  and  method  of  handling; 

(3)  the  ultimate  damage  to  timber  from  each  of  the 

various  kinds  of  injury;  and  (41  possibility  of  elimi¬ 
nating  damage  by  more  careful  management  of 
grazing.  #  I 

To  determine  the  effect  of  grazing  sheep  upon  the 
sprouting  and  ground  cover  of  aspen. 

To  determine  definitely  the  time  and  character  of  the 
injury  and  the  ultimate  economical  effect  of  the  in¬ 
jury  upon  tree  growth. 

To  determine  to  what  extent  grazing  reduces  the  fire 
danger  in  the  forest  .  ...  .  I 

To  ascertain  the  effect  of  sheep  grazing,  if  any,  in  de¬ 
termining  the  germination  of  yellow-pine  seed  as  a 
basis  for  the  use  of  sheep  grazing  as  means  of  arti¬ 
ficial  and  natural  reforestation,  and  as  a  basis  for  a 
grazing  policy  on  cut-over  areas. 


1913. 


PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 


65 


E.— PROTECTION— Continued. 


Diseases. 

Project. 

Object. 

Nursery  diseases: 

District  2 . 

To  determine  the  methods  of  checking  fungous  diseases 
of  stock  in  nurseries. 

District  3 . 

To  determine  the  best  methods  of  preventing  damping- 
off  in  seed  beds. 

Pathological  investigations, 
District  5. 

To  determine  the  age  of  infection  of  incense  cedar  by 
Polyporus  amarus  ( dry  rot);  the  age  of  infection  of 
white  fir  by  Echinodontium  tinctorum;  the  rela- 

firm  of  flppflV  to  firp  anrl  lioTi  tnincr  wniinrlQ* 

i 

nature  and  extent  of  damage  done  by  needle  dis¬ 
eases  in  yellow  pine,  Jeffrey  pine,  white  fir,  and 
red  fir. 

Root  mould  in  transplant 
beds. 

Effect  of  mistletoe  upon 
growth  and  seed  produc¬ 
tion  of  western  yellow 
pine. 

Decadence  of  white  fir  on 
the  Crater  Forest. 

To  determine  the  cause  of  mould  on  roots  of  the  trans¬ 
plants  of  yellow  pine. 

To  determine  the  effect  upon  the  soundness  of  western 
yellow  pine. 

To  determine  (a)  underlying  cause  of  the  rot,  ( b )  size 
of  the  trees  affected,  (c)  rapidity  of  the  decay,  as  a 
basis  for  a  timber-sale  policy  with  regard  to  white  fir. 

Decadence  of  mature  west¬ 
ern  yellow  pine. 

Work  begun  1910.  To^detennine  the  decadence  of 
western  yellow-pine  trees  left  as  seed  trees  on  timber- 
sale  areas. 

Insects. 

Insect  attacks  on  cupped 
western  yellow  pine. 

To  determine  the  susceptibility  of  cupped  trees  to 
attacks  by  insects. 

Animals. 

Methods  of  combating  seed- 
destroying  animals. 

To  determine  the  best  methods  of  eliminating  seed- 
eating  animals  from  the  sown  areas. 

Snow. 

Damage  to  reproduction  by 

snow. 

♦ 

To  determine  the  effect  of  snow  upon  reproduction. 

» 

F.— REGIONAL  STUDIES. 

;  Forest  conditions  in  Porto 
Rico. 

The  forests  of  Florida  1 . 

j  The  forests  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama.1 

The  forests  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina.1 

To  describe  the  forest  resources  together  with  discussion 
of  forest  problems. 

Same  as  above. 

Same  as  above. 

Same  as  above. 

1  To  be  correlated  with  the  wood-using  industries  of  the  products. 
65603°— 13 - 5 


66 


REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS. 


VOL.  I. 


G.— SILVICAL  STUDIES. 

Distribution. 

Project. 

Object. 

Forest  regions  of  the  United 
States  with  special  refer¬ 
ence  to  laws  of  distribu¬ 
tion. 

To  find  a  scientific  basis  for  the  classification  into  for¬ 
est  regions;  to  determine  their  relation  to  the  climate, 
physiography,  and  geology  of  the  country  and  on 
the  basis  of  such  detailed  description  determine 
general  laws  of  distribution. 

Forest  types. 

Meteorological  observations. . 

To  determine  the  general  climatic  characteristics  of  the 
region  and  the  ecological  site  differences  of  yellow 
pine-Douglas  fir  type ,  larch  type,  and  white-pine  tvpe . 

Meteorological  study  of  con¬ 
ditions  on  north  and  south 
slopes  of  Douglas-fir  types 
and  in  Engelmann-spruce 
types. 

Meteorological  study  of  con¬ 
ditions  in  the  yellow-pine, 
Douglas-fir,  and  Engel¬ 
mann-spruce  types. 

Meteorological  observations.. 

A  comparison  of  the  meteorological  factors  typifying 
these  types. 

A  comparison  of  the  meteorological  factors  typifying 
the  yellow-pine,  Douglas-fir,  and  Engelmann-spruce 
types. 

To  determine  the  general  climatic  characteristics  of 
the  region  and  the  ecological  site  differences  of  the 
three  most  important  forest  types:  (a)  Jeffrey  pine, 

( b )  sugar  pine,  (c)  mixed  type  of  yellow  pine,  Doug¬ 
las  fir,  and  white  fir. 

Special. 

Phenological  observations. . . 

To  secure  data  on  leafing,  flowering,  seed  ripening  and 
dissemination,  and  leaf  falling  of  the  principal  forest 
trees,  for  technical  use  for  charts  to  be  prepared  for 
schools. 

Establishment  of  arboretum 
in  Rock  Creek  Park. 

To  develop  an  arboretum  of  American  species  of  trees 
not  native  to  the  District  of  Columbia  and  of  exotic 

Relation  of  soil  to  tree 
growth. 

species  and  to  establish  a  salicetum  for  the  purpose 
of  identification  and  hybridization. 

To  determine  the  soil  requirements  of  the  different 
species  and  the  methods  of  determining  the  soil  re¬ 
quirements  of  forest  trees. 

Forest  experiments  at  Clo¬ 
quet  Station,  Minn.,  in 
cooperation  with  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Minnesota. 

Permanent  sample  plots; 
white  pine,  mixed  hard¬ 
wood,  coppice,  red  spruce, 
red  pine,  white  ash,  Doug¬ 
las  fir,  Scotch  pine,  lob¬ 
lolly  pine,  chestnut,  Euro¬ 
pean  larch,  Norway  spruce 
balsam  fir,  birch,  beech, 
and  maple;  scrub  pine, 
Austrian  pine,  pitch  pine, 
hemlock,  European  fir, 
lodgepole  pine,  Alpine  fir, 
western  yellow  pine,  west¬ 
ern  white  pine,  sugar  pine, 
and  white  fir. 

To  be  used  as  demonstration  grounds  for  securing  sil- 
vical  data  to  be  used  in  Service  publications. 

To  obtain  accurate  quantitative  figures  on  growth  and 
yield,  reproduction,  and  other  silvicultural  charac¬ 
teristics. 

1913. 

PROGRAM  OF  WORK. 

67 

IT.— SPECIAL. 

Project. 

Object. 

Forest  taxation  in  Washing¬ 
ton. 

To  determine  a  just  basis  for  taxing 
Washington . 

timberlands  in 

I.— TREE  STUDIES. 


Ashes  in  the  eastern  United 
States. 


Bald  cypress,  with  special 
reference  to  its  reproduc¬ 
tion,  growth,  and  man¬ 
agement. 

Balsam  fir . 


California  red  fir  ( Abies  mag¬ 
nified)  . 

Cottonwood  in  the  lower 
Mississippi  Valley. 

Douglas  fir . 


Eastern  hemlock 


Eucalyptus  study 


Incense  cedar 


Jack  pine . 

Loblolly  pine  in  North  Car¬ 
olina  (in  cooperation  with 
North  Carolina). 

Loblolly  -  pine  mill  -  scale 
study  (in  cooperation  with 
North  Carolina  Geographic 
and  Economic  Survey). 

Lodgepole  pine . . 


Longleaf  pine  with  reference 
to  turpentine  industry. 


Red  pine . 

Shortleaf  pine . 


To  ascertain  the  silvical  characteristics,  present  stand 
and  utilization,  and  management  of  second-growth 
stands  of  ash  in  the  eastern  United  States,  with 
special  reference  to  white  ash. 

To  determine  whether  natural  reproduction  of  cypress 
can  normally  be  expected,  the  rate  of  growth  of 
second-growth  stands,  and  the  best  system  of  man¬ 
agement  for  both  virgin  and  second-growth  stands. 

To  determine  the  growth,  volume,  and  yield  of  balsam 
fir,  its  silvicultural  characteristics,  and  the  best 
method  of  management  for  the  production  of  pulp 
wood. 

To  bring  together  all  the  available  information  on  the 
distribution,  growth,  management,  and  uses  of  this 
species. 

To  collect  yield  data  for  second-growth  cottonwood,  to 
study  the  characteristics  of  species,  and  suggest 
methods  of  management. 

To  supplement  work  done  in  1909  by  extending  the 
study  to  poorer  qualities  of  soils,  as  a  basis  for  esti¬ 
mates  of  the  potential  yield  of  the  National  Forests 
in  the  Douglas-fir  region  and  for  determining  the 
value  of  certain  land  for  forest  purposes. 

Monograph  on  hemlock,  including  its  history,  biology, 
and  management.  One  of  the  original  series  of  mon¬ 
ographs  planned  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  of  which  white 
pine  and  southern  pines  are  samples. 

To  determine  the  possibilities  of  the  different  species 
of  eucalyptus  for  planting,  their  yield  and  manage¬ 
ment. 

To  bring  together  all  the  available  information  on  the 
distribution,  growth,  management,  and  uses  of  this: 
species. 

To  bring  together  available  information  on  the  distri¬ 
bution,  qualities,  and  uses  of  the  jack  pine. 

To  ascertain  the  yield  of  second-growth  stands  and  to 
suggest  methods  of  management. 

To  collect  data  on  second  growth  of  loblolly  pine  for  a 
graded  mill-scale  table  and  volume  table;  to  com¬ 
plete  Ashe’s  report  on  loblolly  pine  in  North  Carolina 
and  to  secure  data  to  complete  Sterrett’s  monograph 
on  loblolly  pine. 

To  bring  together  available  information  on  the  distri¬ 
bution,  qualities,  and  uses  of  lodgepole  pine  of  Mon¬ 
tana  and  Idaho. 

To  bring  together  all  available  information  on  the 
growth,  volume,  yield,  and  management  of  longleaf 
pine  with  special  reference  to  the  turpentine  indus¬ 
try. 

To  bring  together  all  available  information  on  the 
growth,  volume,  yield,  and  management  of  red  pine 
throughout  its  entire  range. 

Revision  and  extension  of  report  on  shortleaf  pine  in 
Virginia. 


68  REVIEW  OF  FOREST  SERVICE  INVESTIGATIONS.  VOL.  I. 

I.— TREE  STUDIES— Continued. 


Project. 

Sugar  pine  1 . 

Western  white  pine 


Western  yellow  pine  in  Ore¬ 
gon. 

White  pine  of  Montana  and 
Idaho,  exclusive  of  Pinus 
monticola. 

White  pine  under  forest  man¬ 
agement. 

Second-growth  yellow  pine. . 


Red  spruce  in  the  Northeast. 


Silvical  leaflets . 

Western  larch .  . . .’ . 

Western  red  cedar . . 

Willows,  their  economic  uses 
and  importance. 

Second-growth  yellow  pop¬ 
lar. 

Western  hemlock  ( Tsuga  het- 
erophylla). 


Object. 


To  bring  together  all  the  available  information  on  the 
distribution,  growth,  management,  and  uses  of  this 
species. 

To  secure  all  available  information  on  the  distribution, 
growth,  and  management  of  western  white  pine  as  a 
basis  for  a  monograph  on  this  species.- 

To  bring  together  all  the  available  information  on  the 
growth,  yield,  and  management  of  western  yellow 
pine  in  Oregon. 

To  bring  together  available  information  on  the  distri¬ 
bution,  qualities,  and  uses  of  the  white  pines  of  Mon¬ 
tana  and  Idaho. 

To  supply  better  organized  data,  with  more  specific 
application  to  management. 

To  determine  the  yield  and  possibilities  of  management 
of  the  extensive  stands  of  pure  yellow  pine  coming  in 
as  a  result  of  early  cuttings  on  the  Stanislaus  and 
Tahoe  Forests. 

To  obtain  full  information  regarding  the  silvical  char¬ 
acteristics  and  utilization  of  red  spruce,  with  special 
reference  to  the  management  of  second-growth  stands. 

Bringing  together  in  a  brief  form  the  available  silvical 
information  regarding  American  forest  trees. 

To  bring  together  available  information  on  the  distri¬ 
bution,  qualities,  and  uses  of  western  larch. 

To  bring  together  all  the  available  information  on 
growth,  yield,  and  management  of  western  red  cedar. 

To  secure  data  on  the  botanical  and  silvical  character¬ 
istics,  their  management. 

To  determine  the  silvical  characteristics  of  second- 
growth  yellow  poplar,  with  special  reference  to  sys¬ 
tems  of  management  to  be  used  in  such  stands. 

To  secure  additional  data  for  revising  and  reprinting  in¬ 
formation  and  tables  on  western  hemlock  as  found  in 
Bulletin  33  of  the  Forest  Service. 


J.— UTILIZATION. 


Lumbering  in  National  For¬ 
est  regions. 

Flume  construction  and 
fluming. 

Deterioration  of  timber 
caused  by  fires. 

National  Forest  timber  sales. 


To  secure  reliable  data  on  cost  of  logging  and  a  basis  for 
uniform  methods  of  stumpage  appraisals. 

To  describe  methods  of  flume  construction,  costs,  and 
operation. 

To  determine  the  rate  with  which  timber  deteriorates 
for  merchantable  use. 

To  state  the  policy  and  indicate  the  opportunities  for 
the  purchase  of  timber  from  the  National  Forests. 


1  The  completion  of  this  monograph  should  he  made  in  cooperation  with  the  Branch  of  Products. 

O 


« 


330,173 

P/ ^  < i. 

fli-TGELD  n/iLi  STACKS 


Issued  November  30,  1907. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

FOREST  SERVICE— Circular  129. 

GIFFORD  PINCHOT,  Forester. 


THE  DRAIN  UPON  THE  FORESTS. 


By 

R.  S.  KELLOGG, 

CHIEF,  OFFICE  OF  WOOD  UTILIZATION. 


WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  :  1907 


P.  P.  Wells,  Law  Officer. 

Herbert  A.  Smith,  Editor. 

George  B.  Sudworth,  Dendrologist. 


Operation — James  B.  Adams,  Assistant  Forester,  in  Charge. 
Maintenance — Hermon  C.  Metcalf,  Chief. 

Accounts — George  E.  King,  Chief. 

Organization — C.  S.  Chapman,  Chief. 

Clyde  Leavitt,  Assistant  Chief. 
Engineering — W.  E.  Herring,.  Chief. 

Lands — George  F.  Pollock,  Chief. 


Silviculture — William  T.  Cox,  Assistant  Forester,  in  Charge. 
Extension — Samuel  N.  Spring,  Chief. 

Silvics — Raphael  Zon,  Chief. 

Management — E.  E.  Carter,  Chief. 

W.  G.  Weigle,  Assistant  Chief. 


Grazing — Albert  F.  Potter,  Assistant  Forester,  in  Charge. 


Products — William  L.  Hall,  Assistant  Forester,  in  Charge. 
Wood  Utilization — R.  S.  Kellogg,  Chief. 

Wood  Preservation — Carl  G.  Crawford,  Chief. 
Publication — Findley  Burns,  Chief. 

[Cir.  129] 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FOREST  SERVICE. 


Gifford  Pinchot,  Forester. 

Overton  W.  Price,  Associate  Forester. 


CONTENTS. 


The  known  drains _ _ _ 

Lumber _ 

Shingles _ 

Hewed  cross-ties _ 

Pulpwood _ 

Cooperage  stock _ 

Round  mine  timbers _ 

Lath _ 

Wood  for  distillation _ 

Veneer  _ 

Poles _ _ _ . _ *_A_ 

Tanning  materials _ 

Turpentine  and  rosin _ 

The  unknown  drains _ 

The  supply _ 

Forest  area,  volume,  and  annual  growth 

How  long  will  the  timber  last? _ 

Who  owns  the  forests _ 

Need  of  accurate  data _ 

[Cir.  129] 


Page. 

5 

5 

10 

10 

10 

11 

11 

12 

12 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14 
14 

14 

15 

16 
16 


(3) 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

.r) *  . 


Page. 

Figure  1.  Forest  products,  1906 _  6 

2.  Lumber  production  by  kinds,  190G _  7 

3.  Lumber  production  by  States,  1906 _  8 

4.  Comparison  of  the  relative  production  of  lumber  by  nine  States 

in  1880  and  1906 _  9 

5.  Hardwood  and  softwood  lumber  production,  1906 _  11 

6.  Lumber  production  of  the  United  States,  1880,  1890,  1900,  1906_  13 

7.  Excess  of  annual  cut  over  annual  forest  growth _  15 

8.  Ratio  of  State  and  National  Forests  to  private  and  unreserved 

forests _  15 

[Cir.  129] 


(4) 


THE  DRAIN  UPON  THE  FORESTS. 


Every  American  who  is  abreast  of  current  affairs  is  aware  that  the 
forests  of  the  country  are  being  cut  down  much  faster  than  they  are 
growing,  but  few  have  any  very  definite  idea  of  just  how  much 
more  wood  is  being  cut  than  is  being  produced,  nor  of  how  long 
it  may  be,  under  present  conditions  and  methods,  before  certain 
woods,  now  abundant,  will  be  used  up.  Such  information  is  not 
easy  to  obtain,  and  it  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  estimates  of 
the  yearly  growth. 

The  charts  and  data  given  in  this  circular  are  ba^ed  upon  sta¬ 
tistics  of  forest  products  in  1906,  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  and  the  Forest  Service,  with  the  exception  of  those  upon 
mine  timbers,  which  were  collected  by  the  Forest  Service  and  the 
Geological  Survey  for  the  year  1905. 

THE  KNOWN  DRAINS. 

Figure  1  shows  the  output  of  forest  products  in  1906,  all  classes 
being  reduced  to  equivalent  board  feet  for  more  ready  comparison. 
Roughly,  three  times  as  much  timber  is  used  for  lumber  as  for  all 
the  other  items  combined.  Next  to  lumber  come  shingles,  requiring 

6.3  per  cent  as  much  timber  as  is  used  for  lumber;  hewed  cross-ties 
require  approximately  the  same  amount.  Domestic  pulpwood  takes 

4.3  per  cent  as  much  timber  as  is  used  for  lumber,  and  in  addition 
large  quantities  of  pulpwood  are  imported.  Cooperage  stock  and 
round  mine  timbers  require  approximately  equal  quantities  of  timber ; 
lath  take  2  per  cent,  wood  used  for  distillation  1.7  per  cent,  veneer 
0.9  per  cent,  and  poles  0.6  per  cent  of  the  quantity  used  for  lumber. 

The  total  quantity  of  timber  used  annually  for  lumber  and  the 
other  products  mentioned  above  is  equivalent  to  approximately  50 
billion  board  feet. 

LUMBER. 

The  cut  of  lumber  by  species  in  1906  is  shown  in  figure  2.  Yellow 
pine  is  far  in  the  lead,  furnishing  31.1  per  cent  of  the  total  amount. 
Douglas  fir  comes  second,  with  13.2  per  cent;  white  pine  third,  with 
12.2  per  cent ;  hemlock  fourth,  with  9.4  per  cent ;  and  oak  fifth,  with 
7.5  per  cent.  Spruce  and  western  pine  furnish  4.4  per  cent  and  3.7 

[Cir.  129] 


(5) 


6 


per  cent,  respectively.  These  seven  kinds  of  timber  furnish  over 
four-fifths  of  the  total,  and  no  other  kind  reaches  one  billion  feet  of 
lumber  annually.  Under  lumber  is  included  sawed  railroad  cross¬ 
ties. 

The  three  kinds  of  lumber  which  are  most  largely  exported  are 
yellow  pine,  redwood,  and  Douglas  fir,  the  first  going  principally  to 
Europe  and  the  others  most  largely  to  Australia,  the  Orient,  and 

BILLIONS  OF  BOARD  FEET 


South  America.  In  1906  the  exportations  of  yellow  pine  amounted 
to  about  8  per  cent  of  the  total  cut  of  yellow  pine  lumber,  that  of  red¬ 
wood  to  over  6  per  cent,  and  that  of  Douglas  fir  to  nearly  8  per  cent 
of  the  cut.  Considering  all  kinds,  the  exports  of  hewed  and  sawed 
timber  and  lumber  amounted  to  about  5  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber 
production  in  1906. 

The  lumber  cut  by  States  in  1906  is  shown  in  figure  3.  Washing¬ 
ton  leads,  with  11.5  per  cent;  Louisiana  is  second,  with  7.4  per  cent; 

[Cir.  129] 


7 


Wisconsin  third,  with  6.2  per  cent;  and  Michigan  fourth,  with  5.6 
per  cent.  The  fifteen  States  which  cut  over  one  billion  feet  each  in 
1906  supplied  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  total  production. 

The  proportion  of  the  total  lumber  production  of  the  United  States 
furnished  by  nine  States  in  1880  and  in  1906  is  shown  in  figure  4. 
In  1880  these  States  produced  52.8  per  cent  of  the  total  amount,  and 
in  1906,  51.5  per  cent,  practically  equal  proportions,  but  the  changes 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  output  of  individual  States  are  very 
striking.  Michigan,  for  instance,  cut  23  per  cent  of  the  total  in  1880 
and  but  5.6  per  cent  in  1906 ;  Louisiana  cut  0.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
in  1880  and  7.4  per  cent  in  1906 ;  Washington  furnished  but  0.9  per 

BILLIONS  OF  BOARD  FEET 

0  1  234  56  78  9  10  II  12 

Yellow  Pine 
Douglas  Fir 
White  Pine 
Hemlock 
Oak 
Spruce 

Western  Pine 
Maple 
Cypress 
Poplar 
Redwood 
Red  Gum 
Chestnut 
Basswood 
Cedar 
Bi  rch 

Cottonwood 
Beech 
Elm 
Ash 
Larch 
Hickory 
Sugar  Pine 
Tamarack 
White  Fir 
Wal  nut 
Tupelo 
All  others 

cent  of  the  lumber  production  of  1880  and  11.5  per  cent  of  that  of 
1906.  The  cutting  out  of  the  virgin  timber  in  the  North  and  East 
has  been  followed  by  increased  drains  upon  the  forest  resources  of 
the  South  and  West. 

The  hardwood  and  softwood  lumber  production  in  1906  is  shown 
in  figure  5,  the  softwood  cut  being  over  four  times  the  hardwood  cut. 
There  has  been  a  very  decided  change  in  the  ratio  of  hardwoods  to 
softwoods  in  recent  years.  In  1899  the  hardwoods  furnished  nearly 
25  per  cent  of  the  total,  against  less  than  19.5  per  cent  in  1906.  This 
has  been  caused  by  a  greatly  increased  cut  of  certain  softwoods,  to¬ 
gether  with  a  strong  decrease  in  leading  hardwoods.  In  the  last 

[Cir.  129] 


8 


BILLIONS  OF  BOARD  FEET 

0  12  3 


Washington 

Louisiana 

Wisconsin 

Michigan 

Mississippi 

Arkansas 

Minnesota 

Texas 

Pennsylvania 

Oregon 

California 

North  Carolina 

Mai  ne 

Vi  rgi  n  ia 

Alabama 

West  Vi  rgi  nia 

Flori  da 

Georgia 

New  York 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

South  Carolina 

New  Hampshire 

Missouri 

Indiana 

Ohio 

Idaho 

Massachusetts 
Vermont 
Montana 
Maryland 
Iowa 
1 1 1  i  no  is 
Conn  ecticut 
Colorado 
New  Mexico 
Arizona 
Indian  Territory 
All  Others 


Fig.  3. — Lumber  production  by  States,  1900. 


[Cir.  129] 


9 


seven  years  yellow  pine  has  increased  20.7  per  cent,  western  pine  46.9 
per  cent,  cypress  69.3  per  cent,  redwood  83.2  per  cent,  and  Douglas  fir 
186.2  per  cent,  which  far  more  than  counterbalance  the  decrease  of 
40.8  per  cent  in  white  pine.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cut  of  the  two 

188  0  4906 


8.5%  6.2% 


_N.  Y. 


6.5% 


2./% 


.7%  7.4% 


Fig.  4. — Comparison  of  the  relative  production  of  lumber  by  nine  States  in  1880  and  1906. 

most  important  hardwoods,  oak  and  poplar,  has  decreased  36.4  per 
cent  and  38.7  per  cent,  respectively,  in  the  same  period. 

The  total  lumber  production  reported  by  the  censuses  of  1880,  1890, 
1900,  and  1906  is  shown  in  figure  6.  The  cut  has  more  than  doubled 
since  1880  and  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that,  could  wholly  complete 
statistics  be  obtained,  at  least  40  billion  feet  would  be  shown  at  pres- 

[Cir.  129] 


10 


ent.  The  many  substitutes  for  wood  that  have  been  proposed,  and  to 
some  extent  used,  have  not  lessened  the  demand  for  lumber,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  per  capita  consumption  was  360  board  feet 
in  1880  and  440  board  feet  in  1906.  However,  the  rate  of  increase 
in  lumber  production  has  been  very  small  in  recent  years,  which 
indicates  that  the  maximum  cut  for  the  country  as  a  whole  has  been 
nearly  if  not  quite  reached. 

As  was  shown  in  figure  1,  the  production  of  lumber  constitutes  the 
heaviest  drain  upon  our  forests.  It  is  of  interest,  however,  to  mention 
briefly  the  other  purposes  for  which  woods  are  most  largely  used. 

SHINGLES. 

While  a  large  number  of  woods  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
for  shingles,  the  market  is  dominated  by  the  cedar  shingles,  of  which 
there  are  two  kinds — the  white  cedar  of  the  Northeastern  and  Lake 
States  and  the  so-called  red  cedar  of  the  Pacific  coast.  Of  a  total 
reported  shingle  production  of  11,858,260,000  in  1906  the  western 
cedar  furnished  over  three-fifths  and  the  eastern  cedar  about  one- 
tenth.  Ten  per  cent  of  the  shingle  production  consisted  of  cypress, 
while  redwood  and  yellow  pine  furnished  nearly  7  per  cent  and  5 
per  cent,  respectively.  More  cedar  is  used  for  shingles  than  for  all 
other  purposes  combined,  while  with  the  other  woods  shingles  are 
frequently  a  by-product  of  lumber  manufacturing. 

HEWED  CROSS-TIES. 

The  United  States  uses  each  year  over  100,000,000  cross-ties,  of 
which  three-fourths  are  hewed.  Sawed  ties  are  not  discussed  here, 
as  they  are  included  in  the  item  of  lumber.  Of  the  hewed  cross¬ 
ties,  the  oaks,  and  chiefly  the  white  oaks,  furnish  nearly  one-half. 
The  cutting  of  hewed  ties  from  young  oak  trees  constitutes,  with  the 
exception  of  lumber,  the  most  serious  drain  upon  our  oak  forests. 
Two-fifths  as  much  oak  timber  is  required  for  ties  as  for  lumber. 
The  southern  pines  furnish  nearty  18  per  cent  of  the  hewed  cross¬ 
ties,  and  cedar  and  chestnut  about  8  per  cent  and  7  per  cent,  respec¬ 
tively.  Other  woods  which,  while  locally  important,  are  used  in 
less  quantities  for  hewed  cross-ties  are  cypress,  tamarack,  hemlock, 
western  pine,  and  redwood. 

PULP  WOOD. 

The  domestic  pulpwood  used  in  1906  amounted  to  over  2,900.000 
cords  and  in  addition  some  738.000  cords  were  imported  from  Can¬ 
ada.  More  than  three-fifths  of  the  domestic  pulpwood  consisted  of 
spruce  and  nearly  one-fifth  of  hemlock.  Poplar  furnished  the  bulk 
of  the  remainder,  with  relatively  small  quantities  of  several  other 
woods.  The  use  of  spruce  is  increasing,  and  at  present  nearly  60 

[Cir.  129] 


11 


per  cent  as  much  spruce  is  used  for  pulp  as  for  lumber.  Importa¬ 
tions  of  spruce  pulpwood  have  gained  steadily,  as  the  demands  of 
the  pulp  manufacturers  for  spruce  have  exceeded  the  domestic  sup¬ 
ply.  The  use  of  hemlock  has  also  increased  rapidly,  and  now  nearly 
9  per  cent  as  much  is  used  for  pulp  as  for  lumber. 

COOPERAGE  STOCK. 

The  production  of  tight  cooperage  stock  reported  for  1906 
amounted  to  over  267,000,000  staves  and  17,700,000  sets  of  heading, 
and  that  of  slack  cooperage  stock  to  1,097,063,000  staves,  129,555,000 
sets  of  heading,  and  330,- 
892,000  hoops.  The  total 
production  of  slack  coop¬ 
erage  stock  was  undoubt¬ 
edly  considerably  in  ex¬ 
cess  of  the  figures  given, 
as  reports  upon  this  sub¬ 
ject  were  not  received 
from  some  manufacturers. 

At  least  90  per  cent  of 
the  tight  cooperage  stock 
consists  of  white  oak  of 
the  best  quality,  so  that 
this  constitutes  a  heavy 
drain  upon  the  white  oak 
supply.  Probably  more 
than  one-tenth  as  much 
white  oak  is  used  for  coop¬ 
erage  as  for  lumber.  Over  one-fifth  of  the  oak  staves  annually  pro¬ 
duced  are  exported — principally  to  France,  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  Italy. 

A  large  number  of  woods  are  used  for  slack  staves  and  heading, 
the  principal  vmes  in  order  of  importance  being  elm,  pine,  red  gum, 
maple,  beech,  oak,  chestnut,  birch,  and  ash.  For  hoops  little  is  used 
except  elm,  as  this  wood  combines  in  a  high  degree  the  qualities  of 
strength  and  toughness  necessary  for  a  good  hoop.  More  elm  is 
used  for  slack  cooperage  stock  than  is  used  for  lumber. 

ROUND  MINE  TIMBERS. 

According  to  data  gathered  by  the  Forest  Service  and  the  Geo¬ 
logical  Survey  upon  the  consumption  of  timber  in  mines  in  1905,  the 
quantity  of  round  mine  timbers  used  underground  annually  exceeds 
165,000,000  cubic  feet,  of  which  over  half  consists  of  hardwoods. 
Like  the  making  of  hewed  cross-ties,  the  cutting  of  round  mine  tim- 

[Cir.  129] 


Fig.  5.— Hardwood  and  softwood  lumber  production,  1906. 


12 


bers  takes  large  quantities  of  young  timber,  and  in  many  localities 
constitutes  a  most  serious  drain  upon  the  forests. 

LATH. 

Lath  are  generally  a  by-product  of  lumber  manufacturing  and  so 
are  made  from  nearly  every  kind  of  wood  that  is  cut  into  lumber.  A 
comparatively  few  woods,  however,  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  lath. 
The  production  of  lath  reported  for  1906  was  slightly  in  excess  of 
3,812,000,000,  of  which  white  pine  furnished  nearly  one-quarter,  yel¬ 
low  pine  one-fifth,  hemlock  16.2  per  cent,  Douglas  fir  14.4  per  cent, 
spruce  11.1  per  cent,  and  cypress  4.7  per  cent. 

WOOD  FOR  DISTILLATION. 

The  amount  of  wood  reported  as  used  for  distillation  in  1906  was 
1,195,130  cords,  of  which  a  little  over  50,000  cords  consisted  of  pine 
and  the  balance  of  hardwoods.  The  hardwoods  distilled  are  chiefly 
birch,  beech,  and  maple,  but  it  is  impossible  to  state  the  proportions. 
In  some  cases  the  wood  used  for  distillation  consists  of  the  waste 
incident  to  logging  and  lumber  manufacturing  operations  and  so 
constitutes  a  saving,  while  in  other  cases  the  wood  is  cut  especially 
for  distillation. 

VENEER. 

Not  less  than  326,000,000  feet,  log  scale,  of  timber  was  used  for  the 
production  of  veneer  in  1906.  Many  woods  are  made  into  veneer, 
reports  upon  some  20  kinds  being  received,  but  the  larger  portion  is 
furnished  by  a  comparatively  few  species.  Over  one-fifth  of  the 
total  amount  consisted  of  red  gum  and  about  one-seventh  of  oak,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  yellow  pine,  maple,  cottonwood,  yellow  poplar,  hardwood, 
birch,  elm,  tupelo,  spruce,  beech,  ash,  and  walnut.  The  making  of 
thin  lumber  from  pine,  cottonwood,  and  similar  woods  upon  veneer 
machines  for  boxes,  baskets,  and  crates  has  increased  rapidly  in  recent 
years.  The  veneering  of  such  woods  is  for  a  wholly  different  purpose 
from  that  of  the  veneering  of  oak,  maple,  and  other  ornamental 
woods,  where  the  sheet  of  veneer  is  spread  upon  a  backing  of  inferior 
material. 

POLES. 

I  he  telegraph,  telephone,  and  electric-light  companies  reported  the 
purchase  of  3,493,025  round  poles  exceeding  20  feet  in  length  in  1906. 
Over  three-fifths  of  these  poles  consisted  of  cedar  and  more  than  28 
per  cent  of  chestnut.  Relatively  small  amounts  of  pine,  cypress,  red¬ 
wood  and  other  poles  were  also  purchased.  In  addition  to  the  poles 
required  by  these  commercial  companies,  a  large  number  of  smaller 
poles  were  used  for  local  telephone  lines  and  similar  purposes. 

[Cir.  120] 


13 


TANNING  MATERIALS. 


The  tanneries  reported  a  consumption  of  some  1,370,000  cords  of 
bark  and  more  than  387,000  barrels  of  tanning  extract,  made  from 
domestic  bark  and  wood,  in  1906.  Over  two-thirds  of  the  bark  used 
was  hemlock  and  the  balance  principally  oak.  Two-thirds  of  the 
domestic  extract  was  made  from  chestnut  bark  and  wood,  and  nearly 
all  of  the  remainder  from  hemlock  and  oak  bark.  Formerly  a  great 
deal  of  hemlock  was  cut  solely  for  the  bark  and  the  wood  left  to  rot 
in  the  forest,  and  the  same  practice  was  followed  to  a  less  extent  with 
oak,  but  at  present  the  bark-producing  trees  are  so  generally  utilized 
for  lumber  or  other  purposes  that  the  manufacture  of  tanning  mate¬ 
rials  can  be  said  to  constitute  an  additional  drain  upon  the  forests 
onlyin  so  far  as  the  wood  itself  is  used  in  extract  making,  as  is  the 


18,087, 356,0  0  0  feet 


1880 


23.494.853.0  0  0  feet 


1890 


34.780,513.00  0  feet 


1900 


37.350,736.000  feet 


1906 


Fig.  6. — Lumber  production  of  the  United  States,  1880,  1890,  1900,  1906. 


case  with  chestnut.  The  tanneries  are  now  supplementing  the  domes¬ 
tic  supply  of  tanning  materials  by  considerable  importations  of  the 
bark  and  extract  of  quebracho,  a  South  American  tree.  Over  267,000 
barrels  of  quebracho  extract  were  used  in  the  calendar  year  1906,  and 
the  total  value  of  the  importations  of  quebracho  bark  and  extract  in 
the  fiscal  year  1906  was  nearly  $2,400,000. 

TURPENTINE  AND  ROSIN. 

No  recent  statistics  are  available  upon  the  annual  production  of 
turpentine  and  rosin.  For  the  calendar  year  1904  the  Census  secured 
reports  upon  a  production  of  30,687,051  gallons  of  turpentine  and 
3,508,347  barrels  of  rosin.  Turpentine  orcharding,  according  to  the 
usual  method  of  “  boxing,”  has  been  very  destructive  to  the  longleaf 
pine  forests  of  the  South.  The  mere  cutting  of  a  u  box  ”  in  the  base 

[Cir.  129] 


14 


of  the  trees  to  catch  the  resin  flowing  from  the  faces  above  is.  not  of 
itself  sufficient  to  kill  the  trees,  but  small  trees  are  often  so  weakened 
as  to  be  easily  wind-thrown,  the  box  offers  a  means  of  ready  entrance 
for  injurious  fungi  and  insects,  and  such  favorable  conditions  are 
afforded  for  fire  after  turpentining  ceases  that  to  the  production  of 
naval  stores  must  be  charged  a  large  drain  upon  the  southern  forests. 

THE  UNKNOWN  DRAINS. 

No  satisfactory  data  have  ever  been  collected  upon  the  quantity 
of  wood  used  annually  for  posts*  fuel,  and  domestic  purposes.  The 
few  statistics  available  indicate  a  cut  of  about  20.000.000  cedar  posts 
in  the  Lake  States  in  1900,  and  of  course  many  millions  of  posts  were 
cut  elsewhere. 

The  census  of  1880  estimated  that  the  annual  consumption  of  fuel 
wood  was  practically  3  cords  per  capita.  There  has  unquestion¬ 
ably  been  a  relative  decrease  in  the  use  of  wood  for  fuel  since 
that  time,  yet  in  the  absence  of  further  information  it  would  seem 
hardly  reasonable  to  say  that  the  per  capita  consumption  has  been 
reduced  more  than  one-half.  If  this  be  true,  we  are  now  using  some 
120  million  cords  of  firewood  annuallv.  In  order  to  be  more  con- 
servative,  however,  the  amount  was  estimated  at  100  million  cords  in 
Circular  97  of  the  Forest  Service.  The  latter  quantity  is  equivalent 
to  some  50  billion  board  feet. 

Much  timber  is  also  destroved  or  damaged  by  fires  and  storms. 
For  example,  in  the  year  1891  the  Division  of  Forestry  estimated 
that  12  million  acres  of  forest  land  were  burned  over ;  and  in  the  fall 
of  1906  a  great  deal  of  timber  was  thrown  down  by  wind  in  the  Gulf 
States. 


Therefore  it  will  be  seen  that  all  statistics  and  conservative  esti¬ 
mates  indicate  that  our  present  consumption  of  wood  in  all  forms  is 
equivalent  to  at  least  100  billion  board  feet  annually,  and  possibly 
much  more.  Indeed,  one  leading  authority  has  estimated  that  the 
total  annual  use  of  wood  in  the  United  States  is  equivalent  to  150 
billion  board  feet. 

THE  SUPPLY. 


In  reply  to  the  oft-repeated  question,  “  How  long  will  our  timber 
supply  last  at  the  present  rate  of  cutting?  ”  only  approximations  can 
be  given. 

FOREST  AREA,  VOLUME,  AND  ANNUAL  GROWTH. 


The  estimates  of  the  forest  area  of  the  United  States  run  from  500 
million  acres  to  700  million  acres,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  under 
present  conditions  the  annual  growth  does  not  exceed  60  board  feet 
per  acre.  This  gives  in  one  case  a  yearly  increase  of  30  billion  feet 

[Clr.  129] 


15 


and  in  the  other  case  one  of  42  billion  feet.  In  other  words,  it 
appears  that  the  annual  growth  of  our  forests  does  not  exceed  the 
amount  of  wood  used  for  lumber  alone.  Considering  all  the  drains 
upon  the  forests,  the  an¬ 
nual  consumption  of  wood 
is  probably  three  times  the 
annual  growth.  Figure 
T  shows  graphically  the 
excess  of  the  annual  cut 
over  the  annual  growth, 
based  upon  this  assump¬ 
tion. 

HOW  LONG  WILL  THE 
TIMBER  LAST? 

The  estimates  of  stand¬ 
ing  timber  in  the  United 
States  are  by  no  means 
satisfactory.  The  most  de¬ 
tailed  ones  range  roughly 
from  1,400  to  2,000  billion 
feet.  Assuming  a  stumpage  of  1,400  billion  feet,  an  annual  use  of 
100  billion  feet,  and  neglecting  growth  in  the  calculation,  the  ex¬ 
haustion  of  our  timber 


use  and  stand,  with  an  an¬ 
nual  growth  of  40  billion 
feet,  we  have  a  supply  for 
23  years.  Assuming  an 
annual  use  of  150  billion 
feet,  the  first  supposition 
becomes  9  years,  and  the 
second,  13  years.  Assum¬ 
ing  a  stand  of  2,000  bil¬ 
lion  feet,  a  use  of  100  bil¬ 
lion  feet,  and  neglecting 
growth,  we  have  20  years’ 
supply.  Assuming  the 
and  same  conditions,  with  an 
annual  growth  of  40  bil¬ 
lion  feet,  we  have  33  years'  supply.  With  an  annual  use  of  150 
billion  feet,  these  estimates  become,  respectively,  13  and  18  years. 

[Cir.  129] 


supply  is  indicated  in  14 
years.  Assuming  the  same 


Fig.  8.— Ratio  of  State  and  National  forests  to  private 
unreserved  forests. 


Fig.  7. — Excess  of  annual  cut  over  annual  forest  growth. 


16 


There  is  another  way  of  looking  at  the  question :  The  two  leading 
kinds  of  lumber  on  the  market  now  are  southern  yellow  pine  and 
Douglas  fir.  The  cut  of  yellow  pine  is  nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
lumber  cut,  and  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  at  its  maximum.  Our  minimum 
and  maximum  estimates  of  yellow  pine  stumpage  are  130  and  300 
billion  feet.  The  present  rate  of  cutting  will  exhaust  the  supply  in 
about  10  years  in  the  first  case  and  in  25  years  in  the  second  case, 
neglecting  annual  growth,  which  is  rapid  with  old-field  pine  and  slow 
with  longleaf  pine.  The  largest  estimate  of  the  stand  of  Douglas 
fir  is  350  billion  feet.  This  means  a  70  years’  supply  at  the  present 
rate  of  cutting,  neglecting  annual  growth.  As  it  is  probable,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  cut  will  more  than  double  within  a  few  years,  the  out- 
look  is  that  there  will  be  comparatively  little  Douglas  fir  left  in  from 
25  to  30  years.  The  case  of  Douglas  fir  now  is  closely  parallel  to  that 
of  white  pine  in  the  Lake  States  30  years  ago,  and  there  is  much 
reason  for  believing  that  the  supply  of  fir,  outside  of  the  National 
Forests,  30  years  hence,  will  be  as  limited  as  that  of  white  pine  now. 

WHO  OWNS  THE  FORESTS. 

At  present  only  about  22  per  cent  of  our  total  forest  area  is  in  State 
or  National  Forests,  assuming  a  forest  area  of  700,000,000  acres,  the 
remainder  being  on  unreserved  public  lands  or  in  private  hands. 
This  condition  is  represented  graphically  in  figure  8.  The  forest 
area  of  the  United  States  is  amply  sufficient,  if  rightly  managed,  to 
produce  eventually  enough  timber  to  supply  all  our  needs-  Yet 
private  owners,  as  well  as  the  State  and  National  Governments,  must 
use  their  forest  lands  in  a  right  wav  if  we  are  to  maintain  our  timber 
supply. 

NEED  OF  ACCURATE  DATA. 

The  wide  divergence  in  the  estimates  upon  both  our  wood  consump¬ 
tion  and  our  timber  supply  emphasizes  strongly  the  importance  of 
ascertaining  accurately  and  with  the  least  possible  delay  the  quantity 
of  wood  annually  consumed  for  every  purpose,  how  much  standing 
timber  we  have  and  where  it  is,  and  the  rate  of  growth  of  all  impor¬ 
tant  species.  Without  this  fundamental  knowledge,  it  is  clearly 
impossible  to  make  right  and  permanent  plans  for  the  perpetuation 
and  utilization  of  our  forest  resources. 

Approved : 

James  Wilson,  Secretary . 

Washington,  D.  C.,  October  7, 1907. 


O 


zzo.q'i  3 

PWc- 

"vio>  5* 

ALTGELD  HALL  S1ACKS 


Issued  January  28, 1908. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

FOREST  SERVICE— Circular  140. 

GIFFORD  PINCHOT,  Forester. 


WHAT  FORESTRY  HAS  DONE. 


v 


By 


TREADWELL  CLEVELAND,  Jr., 

EXPERT. 


WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  :  1908 


IL1BRARY  OF  THE 
UN  IVERS1TY 
lOF  I  LL1  N  O I <Sl 

iCOLLEGEOI 

ENGINEERING 


From  the  librartj  of" 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 
OCKERSON 

c.  LAS  5  Of  J  8  7  3 

VreSet itej-  j\\aw  1, 1Q24 

btl  FiisWidovv  CLA.KA 
SKACKEIfORD  OCKERSON 


330,  97 3 
Flic 

Ho,  S 


/ 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction _  5 

Germany  _  7 

France  _  IQ 

Switzerland _  13 

Austria  and  Hungary _  15 

Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark _  17 

Russia  and  Finland _  19 

India _  21 

Japan  _  24 

Italy  -  25 

Spain  and  Portugal _  20 

Slavic  Kingdoms _ 2G 

China  _  27 

Canada _ 28 

Turkey  -  28 

The  chief  lessons  of  forestry  abroad _  29 

Expenditures  and  revenues  of  national  forests _  29 

Net  wood  imports  and  wood  exports  of  forest  countries _  30 

[Cir.  140] 


(3) 


WHAT  FORESTRY  HAS  DONE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Many  people  in  this  country  think  that  forestry  had  never  been 
tried  until  the  Government  began  to  practice  it  upon  the  National 
Forests.  Yet  forestry  is  practiced  by  every  civilized  country  in  the 
world,  except  China  and  Turkey.  It  gets  results  which  can  be  got  in 
no  other  way,  and  which  are  necessary  to  the  general  welfare.  For¬ 
estry  is  not  a  new  thing.  It  was  discussed  two  thousand  years  ago, 
and  it  has  been  studied  and  applied  with  increasing  thoroughness 
ever  since. 

The  principles  of  forestry  are  everywhere  the  same.  They  rest  on 
natural  laws,  which  are  at  work  everywhere  and  all  the  time.  It  is 
simply  a  question  of  how  best  to  apply  these  laws  to  fit  local  needs 
and  conditions.  No  matter  how  wddely  countries  may  differ  in  size, 
climate,  population,  industry,  or  government,  provided  only  they  have 
forests,  all  of  them  must  come  to  forestrv  some  time  as  a  matter  of 

7  %j 

necessity. 

The  more  advanced  and  progressive  countries  arrive  first  and  go 
farthest  in  forestry,  as  they  do  in  other  things.  Indeed,  we  might 
almost  take  forestry  as  a  yardstick  with  which  to  measure  the 
height  of  a  civilization.  On  the  one  hand,  the  nations  which  follow 
forestry  most  widely  and  systematically  would  be  found  to  be  the 
most  enlightened  nations.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  applied  our 
yardstick  to  such  countries  as  are  without  forestry,  we  could  say  with 
a  good  deal  of  assurance,  by  this  test  alone,  “  Here  is  a  backward 
nation.” 

A  singular  and  suggestive  exception  is  England,  which,  though 
provided  with  mountain  and  heath  lands  capable  of  producing  a 
large  part  of  the  wood  for  home  consumption,  has,  with  strange  indif- 

“The  author  is  indebted  for  his  facts  to  a  number  of  authorities,  among 
which  are  especially  acknowledged :  Dr.  Max  Endres,  Handbuch  der  Forst  Pol- 
itik ;  W.  Schlich,  Ph.  D.,  Manual  of  Forestry,  vol.  1 ;  compilations  of  Dr.  B.  E. 
Fernow. 

[Cir.  140  J 


(5) 


6 


ference,  been  leading  all  nations  in  volume  of  wood  imports  and 
depending  mainly  upon  foreign  sources  for  her  supplies.  England 
lias  hitherto  been  able  to  count  with  certainty  upon  outside  aid  from 
such  near  neighbors  as  Norway  and  Sweden.  This  policy  has  seemed 
satisfactory  to  the  people  in  spite  of  the  examples  of  a  more  provi¬ 
dent  policy  afforded  by  rival  nations  almost  at  her  door.  The  geo¬ 
graphical  and  economic  positions  of  the  country  have  permitted  the 
government,  for  the  time  at  least,  to  ignore  measures  found  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  public  welfare  in  other  countries  of  the  same  rank. 

The  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia,  taken  together,  have  passed 
through  all  the  stages  of  forest  history  and  applied  all  the  known 
principles  of  forestry.  They  are  rich  in  forest  experience.  The  les¬ 
sons  of  forestry  were  brought  home  to  them  by  hard  knocks.  Their 
forest  systems  were  built  up  gradually  as  the  result  of  hardship. 
They  did  not  first  spin  fine  theories  and  then  apply  those  theories  by 
main  force.  On  the  contrary,  they  began  by  facing  disagreeable  facts. 
Every  step  of  the  way  toward  wise  forest  use,  the  world  over,  has 
been  made  at  the  sharp  spur  of  want,  suffering,  or  loss.  As  a  result, 
the  science  of  forestry  is  one  of  the  most  practical  and  most  directly 
useful  of  all  the  sciences.  It  is  a  serious  work,  undertaken  as  a  meas¬ 
ure  of  relief,  and  continued  as  a  safeguard  against  future  calamity. 

Kouglily,  those  countries  which  to-day  manage  their  forests  on 
sound  principles  have  passed  through  four  stages  of  forest  expeii- 
ence.  At  first  the  forests  were  so  abundant  as  to  be  in  the  way,  and 
so  they  were  either  neglected  or  destroyed.  Next,  as  settlements  grew 
and  the  borders  of  the  forest  receded  farther  and  farther  from  the 
places  where  wood  was  needed  and  used,  the  question  of  local  wood 
supplies  had  to  be  faced,  and  the  forest  was  spared  or  even  protected. 
Third,  the  increasing  need  of  wood,  together  with  better  knowledge 
of  the  forest  and  its  growth,  led  to  the  recognition  of  the  forest  as  a 
crop,  like  agricultural  crops,  which  must  be  harvested  and  which 
should  therefore  be  made  to  grow  again.  In  this  stage  silviculture, 
or  the  management  of  the  forest  so  as  to  encourage  its  continued  best 
growth,  was  born.  Finally,  as  natural  and  industrial  progress  led  to 
measures  for  the  general  welfare,  including  a  wiser  and  less  w  aste- 
ful  use  of  natural  resources,  the  forest  was  safeguarded  and  controlled 
so  as  to  yield  a  constant  maximum  product  year  after  year  and  from 
one  generation  to  another.  Systematic  forestry,  therefore,  applied 
by  the  nation  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  and  practiced  increasingly 
by  farsighted  private  citizens,  comes  when  the  last  lesson  in  the 
school  of  forest  experience  is  mastered. 

The  United  States,  then,  in  attacking  the  problem  of  how  best  to 
use  its  great  forest  resources,  is  not  in  the  position  of  a  pioneer  in  the 
field.  It  has  the  experience  of  all  other  countries  to  go  upon.  There 

[Cir.  140] 


7 


is  no  need  for  years  of  experiment  with  untried  theories.  The  forest 
principles  which  hundreds  of  years  of  actual  practice  have  proved 
right  are  at  its  command.  The  only  question  is,  how  should  these  be 
modified  or  extended  to  best  meet  American  conditions.  In  the  man¬ 
agement  of  the  National  Forests  the  Government  is  not  working1  in 
the  dark.  Nor  is  it  slavishly  copying  European  countries.  It  is  put¬ 
ting  into  practice,  in  America,  and  for  Americans,  principles  tried 
and  found  correct,  which  will  insure  to  all  the  people  alike  the  fullest 
and  best  use  of  all  forest  resources. 

In  the  following  short  history  of  what  forestry  has  done  in  other 
countries,  it  will  be  possible  to  give  only  the  chief  facts.  Yet  even 
in  this  incomplete  review  two  things  stand  out  with  striking  clearness. 
One  is  that  those  countries  which  have  gone  farthest  in  the  practice 
of  forestry  are  the  ones  which  to-day  are  most  prosperous,  which 
have  the  least  proportion  of  waste  land,  and  which  have  the  most 
promising  futures.  The  other  is  that  those  countries  which  spend 
most  upon  their  forests  receive  from  them  the  greatest  net  returns. 

GERMANY. 

The  German  Empire  has  nearly  35,000,000  acres  of  forest,  of  which 
31.9  per  cent  belongs  to  the  State,  1.8  per  cent  to  the  Crown,  16.1  per 
cent  to  communities,  46.5  per  cent  to  private  persons,  1.6  per  cent  to 
corporations,  and  the  remainder  to  institutions  and  associations. 
There  is  a  little  over  three-fifths  of  an  acre  of  forest  for  each  citizen, 
and  though  53  cubic  feet  of  wood  to  the  acre  is  produced  in  a  year, 
wood  imports  have  increasingly  exceeded  wTood  exports  for  over  forty 
years,  and  300,000,000  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $80,000,000,  or  over  one- 
sixth  of  the  home  consumption  is  now  imported  each  year.  Ger¬ 
many’s  drains  on  foreign  countries  are  in  the  following  order :  Aus¬ 
tria-Hungary,  19,750,000  tons;  Eussia  and  Finland,  18,000,000  tons; 
Sweden,  508,000  tons ;  the  United  States,  360,000  tons ;  Norway,  49,000 
tons.0 

German  forestry  is  remarkable  in  three  ways.  It  has  always  led 
in  scientific  thoroughness,  and  now  it  is  working  out  results  with  an 
exactness  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  laboratory;  it  has  applied  this 
scientific  knowledge  with  the  greatest  technical  success;  and  it  has 
solved  the  problem  of  securing  through  a  long  series  of  years  an  in¬ 
creasing  forest  output  and  increasing  profits  at  the  same  time. 

Like  other  advanced  European  countries,  Germany  felt  the  pinch 
of  wood  shortage  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  and  though  this 
shortage  was  relieved  by  the  coming  of  the  railroads,  which  opened 
up  new  forests,  and  by  the  use  of  coal,  which  substituted  a  new  fuel 

“According  to  the  kind  of  wood,  a  ton  is  equivalent  to  from  about  500  to  about 
1,000  board  feet. 


[Cir.  140] 


8 


for  wood,  the  warning  was  heeded,  and  systematic  State  forestry  was 
begun.  After  all,  the  scare  was  not  a  false  one,  for  even  to-day  Ger¬ 
many  is  not  independent  as  regards  wood,  since  she  has  to  import  one- 
sixth  of  all  she  uses. 

In  addition  to  the  wood-supply  question,  Germany  was  forced  to 
undertake  forestry  by  the  need  of  protecting  agriculture  and  stream 
flow.  The  troubles  which  France  was  having  with  her  mountain  tor¬ 
rents  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Germans  to  the  dangers  from  floods  in 
their  own  land.  As  a  result  the  maintenance  of  protective  forests 
was  provided  for  by  Bavaria  in  1852,  by  Prussia  in  1875,  and  by 
Wiirttemberg  in  1879. 

Each  State  of  the  German  federation  administers  its  own  forests. 
All  of  the  States  practice  forestry  with  success.  The  results  obtained 
by  Prussia  and  Saxony  are  particularly  interesting,  for  they  show 
how  forests  may  be  kept  constantly  improving  under  a  system  of 
management  which  yields  a  handsome  profit.® 

The  Prussian  forests,  covering  nearly  7,000,000  acres,  are  made  up 
much  as  if  we  should  combine  the  pineries  of  the  Southern  States  with 
the  forests  of  some  of  our  Middle  Atlantic  and  Central  States. 
When  forestry  was  begun  a  great  part  of  them  had  been  injured  by 
mismanagement,  much  as  our  forests  have  been,  and  the  Prussian 
foresters  had  to  solve  the  problem  of  improving  the  run-down  forests 
out  of  the  returns  from  those  which  were  still  in  good  condition. 
They  solved  it  with  striking  success.  Immense  improvement  has 
already  taken  place  and  is  steadily  going  on. 

The  method  of  management  adopted  calls  for  a  sustained  yield — 
that  is,  no  more  wood  is  cut  than  the  forest  produces.  Under  this 
management  the  growth  of  the  forest,  and  consequently  the  amount 
cut,  has  risen  sharply.  In  1830  the  yield  was  20  cubic  feet  per  acre; 
in  1865,  24  cubic  feet;  in  1890,  52  cubic  feet,  and  1904,  65  cubic  feet. 
In  other  words,  Prussian  forest  management  has  multiplied  the  rate 
of  production  threefold  in  seventy-five  years.  And  the  quality  of  the 
product  has  improved  with  the  quantity.  Between  1830  and  1904  the 
percentage  of  saw  timber  rose  from  19  per  cent  to  54  per  cent. 

It  is  a  striking  fact  in  this  connection  that  in  the  United  States 
at  the  present  time  we  are  using  about  three  times  as  much  timber  as 
our  forests  grow.  If  we  were  everywhere  practicing  forestry  with  a 
resulting  improvement  equal  to  that  made  in  Prussia,  our  forests 
would  be  growing  as  much  as  we  use. 

The  financial  returns  in  Prussia  make  an  even  better  showing.  Net 
returns  per  acre  in  1850  were  28  cents.  In  1865  they  were  <2  cents; 
in  1900,  $1.58 ;  and  in  1904,  $2.50.  They  are  now  nearly  10  times  what 

°  See  Financial  Results  of  Forest  Management,  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  in 
Forestry  and  Irrigation  for  February,  1907. 

[Cir.  140] 


9 


they  were  sixty  years  ago,  and  they  are  increasing  more  rapidly  than 
ever. 

These  results  have  been  obtained  in  Prussia  along  with  almost  ideal 
technical  success.  When  what  is  wanted  is  a  sustained  yield  from  the 
forest  year  by  year  in  the  long  run,  it  is  clearly  necessary  to  have 
always  a  certain  number  of  trees  ready  to  be  cut;  there  must  be  a 
proper  proportion  of  trees  of  all  ages.  This  percentage  has  been  se¬ 
cured  and  maintained  with  almost  mathematical  accuracy. 

In  Saxony,  which  has  about  430,000  acres  of  State  forests,  the  in¬ 
crease  of  cut  under  forest  management,  which  always  means  also  a 
corresponding  increase  in  wood  produced,  has  been  nearly  as  marked 
as  in  Prussia.  The  yield  rose  55  per  cent  between  1820  and  1904,  and 
is  now  93  cubic  feet  per  acre — greater  than  that  of  the  Prussian  for¬ 
ests.  Since  the  chief  wood  is  spruce,  which  yields  more  saw  timber 
than  the  average  of  trees  making  up  the  Prussian  forests,  the  in¬ 
crease  in  the  percentage  of  saw  timber  in  Saxony  naturally  exceeds 
the  increase  in  Prussia.  It  increased  from  26  per  cent  in  1830  to  66 
per  cent  in  1904.  The  net  yearly  revenue  is  $5.30  per  acre.  The  yearly 
expense  is  $3  per  acre. 

These  figures  are  in  striking  contrast  with  the  corresponding  ones 
for  the  United  States,  given  in  the  table  on  page  29.  We  spent  on 
our  National  Forests  last  year  9x3o  mills  per  acre,  and  our  net  revenue 
from  them  was  less  than  J  mill  per  acre. 

The  rise  in  prices,  felt  everywhere,  accounts  only  in  part  for  the 
increased  financial  returns  from  forestry  in  these  two  States.  For 
while  the  prices  have  not  quite  trebled,  the  revenue  has  been  multi¬ 
plied  tenfold. 

Other  German  States,  smaller,  and  with  better  kinds  of  timber  and 
better  market  facilities,  secure  even  higher  returns.  The  forests  of 
Wiirttemberg  yield  a  net  annual  revenue  of  nearly  $6  per  acre,  and 
those  of  several  smaller  administrations  do  even  better. 

A  number  of  the  private  forests  of  Germany  are  managed  with 
•  great  success.  As  a  result  of  a  canvass  of  15,600,000  acres  of  State, 
municipal,  and  private  forests,  it  was  found  that  the  average  net  rev¬ 
enue  per  acre,  from  good,  bad,  and  indifferent  land,  was  $2.40  a  year. 

What,  then,  has  forestry  done  in  Germany  ?  Starting  with  forests 
which  were  in  as  bad  shape  as  many  of  our  own  which  have  been 
recklessly  cut  over,  it  raised  the  average  yield  of  wood  per  acre  from 
20  cubic  feet  in  1830  to  65  cubic  feet  in  1904.  During  the  same  pe¬ 
riod  of  time  it  trebled  the  proportion  of  saw  timber  got  from  the 
average  cut,  which  means,  in  other  words,  that  through  the  practice 
of  forestry  the  timberlands  of  Germany  are  of  three  times  better 
quality  to-day  than  when  no  system  was  used.  And  in  fifty-four 
years  it  increased  the  money  returns  from  an  average  acre  of  forest 
sevenfold. 

22242— Cir.  140—08 - 2 


10 


Yet  to-day  the  forests  are  in  better  condition  than  ever  before,  and 
under  the  present  system  of  management  it  is  possible  for  the  German 
foresters  to  say  with  absolute  certainty  that  the  high  yield  and  large 
returns  which  the  forests  now  give  will  be  continued  indefinitely 
into  the  future. 

FRANCE. 

France  has  not  quite  18  per  cent  of  forest — three-fifths  of  an  acre 
per  capita.  This  is  enough  to  produce  only  one-third  of  the  home 
demand.  The  country  imports  annually  $30,000,000  worth  of  wood, 
and  pays  $6,000,000  duty  and  $10,000,000  freight  for  it.  This  wood 
comes  from  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Austria-Hungary,  Germany, 
and  America.  Of  the  23,500,000  acres  of  French  forests  the  State 
owns  2,707,000,  and  the  Departments  and  communes  3,472,000.  Since 
1827,  when  the  forest  code  was  passed,  the  State  and  communal 
forests  have  been  under  management.  The  State  forests  yield  a 
clear  profit  of  $4,737,250  a  year,  or  $1.75  per  acre;  $0.95  is  spent  for 
the  management  of  each  acre  every  year. 

The  best  managed  State  forests  yield  about  40  cubic  feet  per  acre 
a  year,  which  is  low  compared  with  the  yield  of  some  other  European 
forests,  such  as  those  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  or  Wiirttemberg. 

The  great  achievement  of  France  in  forestry  has  been  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  protective  forests  where  much  destruction  had  been 
caused  by  floods  and  winds.  From  various  causes  large  areas  were 
cleared  of  forests  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
only  when  it  was  too  late  was  it  realized  that  these  lands  were  not 
fit  for  agriculture  and  should  have  been  left  in  forest.  To  repair 
the  mistake,  a  movement  to  reforest  began  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
It  was  an  exceedingly  expensive  mistake.  Down  to  the  present 
time,  encouraged  by  wise  laws,  the  State,  the  communes,  and  private 
landowners  have  restored  to  forest  over  2,500,000  acres,  and  so  saved 
them  from  ruin.  In  addition,  the  resulting  forests  return  an  excel¬ 
lent  revenue. 

Two-thirds  of  the  torrents  of  Europe  are  in  France.  In  the  Alps, 
the  Cevennes,  and  the  Pyrenees  mountains  there  are  1,462  brooks 
and  mountain  streams  which  are  considered  dangerous.  Nearly  a 
million  acres  of  mountain  slopes  are  exposed  to  erosion  by  these 
streams,  to  say  nothing  of  the  flat  land  below. 

As  far  back  as  the  sixteenth  century  there  were  local  restrictions 
against  clearing  mountain  sides,  enforced  by  fines,  confiscation,  and 
corporal  punishment.  In  the  main  these  prevented  ruinous  strip¬ 
ping  of  hillsides,  but  with  the  French  Revolution  these  restrictions 
were  swept  aside  and  the  mountains  were  cleared  at  such  a  rate  that 
disastrous  effects  were  felt  within  ten  years.  By  1803  the  people 
had  become  aroused  to  the  folly  of  this  cutting.  Where  useful  brooks 

[Clr.  140] 


11 


had  been  there  now  rushed  torrents  which  flooded  the  fertile  fields 
and  covered  them  with  sterile  soil  washed  down  from  the  mountains. 
The  clearing  continued  unchecked  until  some  800,000  acres  of  farm 
land  had  been  ruined  or  seriously  injured,  and  the  population  of 
eighteen  Departments  had  been  reduced  to  poverty  and  forced  to  emi¬ 
grate.  By  1860  the  State  took  up  the  problem,  but  in  such  a  way 
that  the  burden  of  expense  for  reforestation  was  thrown  upon  the 
mountaineers,  who,  moreover,  were  deprived  of  much  pasturage. 
Complaints  naturally  arose.  An  attempt  was  made  to  check  torrents 
by  sodding  instead  of  by  forest  planting.  This,  however,  proved  a 
failure,  and  recourse  was  again  had  to  planting,  by  the  law  of  1882, 
which  provides  that  the  State  shall  bear  the  costs.  Since  then  the 
excellent  results  of  planting  have  completely  changed  public  senti¬ 
ment.  The  mountaineers  are  most  eager  to  have  the  work  go  on 
and  are  ready  to  offer  their  land  for  nothing  to  the  forest  depart¬ 
ment.  In  addition  to  lands  secured  by  gift,  the  State  acquires  25,000 
or  30,000  acres  a  year.  Over  500,000  acres  have  been  acquired  and 
more  than  one-half  of  this  area  has  been  planted.  Already  163  of  the 
torrents  have  been  entirely  controlled  and  654  are  beginning  to  show 
the  controlling  effects  of  the  forest  on  their  watersheds.  Thirty-one 
of  the  torrents  now  entirely  controlled  were  considered  hopelessly  bad 
half  a  century  ago. 

It  is  expected  that  $50,000,000  will  have  been  spent  before  the  work 
of  reforesting  for  protection  is  complete. 

The  sand  dunes  on  the  coast  of  France,  mainly  in  Gascony,  which 
the  winds  drove  farther  and  farther  inland,  wasting  the  vineyards, 
have  now  largely  been  fixed  in  place  by  forest  plantations  which  were 
begun  in  1793.  Of  the  350,000  acres  of  sand  dunes  275,000  have  been 
planted  in  forest,  and  the  dunes,  instead  of  being  a  constant  menace 
to  the  neighboring  farmers,  now  are  growing  crops  of  pine  which 
produce  valuable  wood  and  resin.  In  all,  about  $2,000,000  was  spent 
in  the  work  and  an  additional  $700,000  was  laid  out  in  bringing  the 
forests  under  administration.  Now,  though  about  one-half  of  the 
lands  have  been  acquired  by  private  persons  and  the  State  retains 
only  about  125,000  acres,  the  State  has  received  $120,000  above  all  ex¬ 
penses,  and  possesses  a  property  worth  $10,000,000,  acquired  virtually 
for  nothing. 

Some  2,000,000  acres  of  shifting  sands  and  marshes  toward  the  in¬ 
terior  of  the  country,  a  triangular  territory  known  as  the  Landes,  has 
been  changed  from-  a  formerly  worthless  condition  into  a  profitable 
forest  valued  at  $100,000,000.  Reforestation  was  begun  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  This  work  was  done  principally  by  the 
communes,  aided  and  imitated  by  private  owners,  and  encouraged 
by  the  State.  The  resulting  forest  produces  both  pine  timber  and 
resin,  upon  the  yield  of  which  the  present  valuation  is  based. 

[Cir.  140] 


12 


La  Sologne,  in  the  central  part  of  the  country  between  the  rivers 
Loire  and  Cher,  was  once  densely  wooded,  but  was  for  two  centuries 
steadily  deforested.  By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
1,250,000  acres  had  been  utterly  abandoned.  Owing  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  drainage  was  necessary  as  a  first  step  toward 
reclaiming  this  land  with  forest.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  a  committee  of  private  citizens,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
director-general  of  forests,  began  the  work  of  reclamation.  A  canal 
25  miles  long  and  350  miles  of  roads  were  built,  and  200,000  acres  of 
nonagricultural  land  were  planted  with  pine.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  one  of  the  species  planted  proved  a  failure  and  another  kind  of 
pine  had  to  be  substituted,  the  reforestation  work  has  resulted  in  a 
forest  property  worth  $18,000,000,  and  land  which  could  be  bought 
for  $4  an  acre  fifty  years  ago  is  now  yielding  $3  an  acre  net  annual 
revenue. 

The  arid  limestone  wastes  of  the  province  of  Champagne  have  been 
partly  reclaimed  by  forest  planting.  Two  hundred  thousand  acres, 
planted  at  a  cost  of  $10  per  acre,  have  now  risen  in  value  from  $4  to 
$40  per  acre,  with  a  total  value  of  $10,000,000  and  a  net  annual  rev¬ 
enue  of  $2  per  acre. 

The  private  forests  of  France  are  being  freely  sold.  Speculators 
buy  them,  strip  them,  and  sell  them  for  grazing  purposes.  In  this 
way  hilltops  and  hillsides  are  being  rapidly  denuded.  This  threatens 
erosion  and  the  silting  of  farm  lands  in  the  valleys  by  the  washing 
down  of  infertile  soil.  The  terribly  destructive  floods  of  the  present 
year  could  not  have  been  so  violent  had  the  hills  of  France  been  kept 
clothed  in  forest. 

In  France,  then,  forestry  has  decreased  the  danger  from  floods, 
which  threatened  to  destro}^  vast  areas  of  fertile  farms,  and  in  doing 
so  has  added  many  millions  of  dollars  to  the  National  wealth  in  new 
forests.  It  has  removed  the  danger  from  sand  dunes;  and  in  their 
place  has  created  a  property  worth  many  millions  of  dollars.  Ap¬ 
plied  to  the  State  forests,  which  are  small  in  comparison  with  the 
National  Forests  of  this  country,  it  causes  them  to  yield  each  year  a 
net  revenue  of  more  than  $4,700,000,  though  the  sum  spent  on  each 
acre  for  management  is  over  100  times  greater  than  that  spent  on 
the  forests  of  the  United  States. 

France  and  Germany  together  have  a  population  of  100,000,000,  in 
round  numbers,  against  our  probable  85,000,000,  and  State  forests  of 
14,500,000  acres  against  our  160,000,000  acres  of  National  Forests;  but 
France  and  Germany  spend  on  their  forests  $11,000,000  a  year  and 
get  from  them  in  net  returns  $30,000,000  a  year,  while  the  United 
States  spent  on  the  National  Forests  last  year  $1,400,000  and  secured 
a  net  return  of  less  than  $130,000. 

[Cir.  140] 


13 


SWITZERLAND. 

In  Switzerland,  which  has  2,000,000  acres,  or  20.6  per  cent  of  its 
area,  in  forest,  the  communal  forests  are  the  largest,  and  make  up  67 
per  cent  of  the  total ;  the  cantons  own  4.5  per  cent ;  and  private  per¬ 
sons  own  28.6  per  cent.  The  communal  holdings  are  constantly  grow¬ 
ing  by  the  purchase  of  private  lands.  The  general  government,  or 
Bund,  owns  no  forests.  From  $6,000,000  to  $8,000,000  worth  of  wood 
(300,000  tons)  and  wooden  ware  are  annually  imported.  This  comes 
mainly  from  Austria-Hungary,  southern  Germany,  and  France. 

The  State  forests  yield  about  64  cubic  feet  per  acre,  the  corporation 
forests  42  cubic  feet;  the  average  yield  of  both  together  is  about  45 
cubic  feet.  The  average  wood  growth  per  acre  has  been  estimated  to 
be  50  cubic  feet.  In  the  State  forests  of  Bern  the  figures  show  a 
growth  of  50  cubic  feet  for  the  plateau  country,  73  cubic  feet  for  the 
middle  country,  and  75  cubic  feet  in  the  Jura.  Wood  prices,  which 
are  higher  than  in  Germany,  have  been  rising  for  forty  years. 

The  expenditures  in  forest  management  vary  greatly  among  the 
Cantons,  ranging  from  $1.50  to  $7  per  acre.  The  net  annual  returns 
range  from  $3  per  acre  in  the  forests  where  least  is  expended,  to  $8 
or  $9  per  acre  in  the  city  forests,  where  most  is  expended. 

Forest  regulations  came  very  early  in  Switzerland.  The  first  for¬ 
est  ordinance  of  Bern  was  issued  600  years  ago.  The  city  forest  of 
Zurich,  famous  as  the  Sihlwald,  has  been  managed  under  a  working 
plan  since  1680,  and  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  perfectly  managed 
and  most  profitable  forests  in  the  world.  It  yields,  on  the  average, 
a  clear  annual  profit  of  $12  an  acre.  From  time  to  time,  as  the  evi¬ 
dence  shows,  the  Swiss  people  stood  in  dread  of  a  timber  famine. 
Ordinances  were  passed  forbidding  the  reduction  of  the  forest  area, 
the  making  of  clearings,  and  the  exportation  of  wood  from  one  Can¬ 
ton  to  another.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  modern 
industrial  life  began,  various  Cantons  sought  to  follow  the  examples 
which  Bern  and  Zurich  had  set  in  forestry.  A  severe  flood  in  1830 
brought  home  the  need  of  more  vigorous  measures  in  guarding 
against  torrents.  The  floods  of  1834  and  1868  further  enforced  the 
lesson.  An  investigation  of  Swiss  forest  conditions  was  ordered  b}' 
the  Bund  in  1857,  and  the  same  year  provision  was  made  for  an  an¬ 
nual  appropriation  of  $2,000  to  the  Swiss  Forestry  Association  for 
engineering  and  reforesting  work  in  the  Alps.  In  1871  the  Bundes- 
rath  was  empowered  to  carry  on  this  work,  with  an  annual  appro¬ 
priation  of  $20,000.  After  the  flood  of  1868  $200,000  of  the  collec¬ 
tions  made  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers  was  devoted  to  reforesta¬ 
tion.  In  1876  the  Bund  assumed  supervision  of  the  water  and  forest 
police  in  the  High  Alps  above  a  certain  elevation,  and  undertook  to 

[Cir.  140] 


14 


give  aid  in  the  work  of  engineering  and  reforesting  for  the  control 
of  the  Alpine  torrents.  Since  1898  the  Bund  has  supervised  all  this 
work,  and  in  1902  the  present  forest  policy  was  firmly  fixed  by  a  re¬ 
vision  of  the  existing  law. 

All  the  Swiss  forests  comprised  in  the  Bund  are  now  classified  as 
protection  and  nonprotection  forests.  Whether  public  or  private 
they  are  all  controlled  by  the  government.  In  protection  forests  all 
cuttings  must  be  such  as  to  preserve  the  protective  value  of  the  forest 
cover  intact,  and  for  this  reason  clean  cutting  is  usually  forbidden. 
In  such  forests  stumpage  sales  are  forbidden,  and  all  wood  must  be 
felled  and  measured  under  the  direction  of  a  forest  officer.  Other¬ 
wise,  privately-owned  protection  forests  are  supervised  in  the  main  as 
are  those  publicly  owned.  Nonprotection  forests  are  also  subject  to 
a  number  of  regulations.  When  they  are  in  private  hands  clearings 
may  be  made  only  with  consent  of  the  Canton,  logged  areas  must  be 
reforested  within  three  years,  and  existing  forest  pastures  must  be 
maintained. 

Where  protection  forests  can  be  created  by  planting,  this  may  be 
ordered,  and  where  forests  are  converted  to  farming  land  or  pasture 
an  equal  area  may  be  ordered  reforested.  Where  barren  ground  is 
required  to  be  forested  for  protective  purposes,  the  Bund  assists  by 
paying  from  30  to  50  per  cent  of  the  cost.  Between  1876  and  1902 
16,000  acres  were  reforested  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000,  in  round  numbers, 
the  Bund  having  paid  one-lialf. 

Grazing  has  been  regulated  for  centuries.  In  protection  forests  it 
is  entirely  prohibited ;  but  on  all  the  rest  of  the  forests  great  success 
has  attended  the  efforts  of  the  forest  service  to  safeguard  both  pas¬ 
turage  and  the  forest  by  supervision  and  range  improvement.  De¬ 
spite  differences  in  local  conditions,  the  experience  of  Switzerland  in 
forest  grazing  is,  therefore,  strongly  in  support  of  the  policies  which 
are  directing  the  efforts  of  our  own  Forest  Service.  Indeed,  the  ex¬ 
perience  of  all  Europe  shows  the  necessity  of  controlling  the  public 
range. 

To  sum  up,  forestry  in  Switzerland,  where  every  foot  of  agricul¬ 
tural  land  is  of  the  greatest  value,  has  made  it  possible  for  the  people 
to  farm  all  land  fit  for  crops,  and  so  has  assisted  the  country  to  sup¬ 
port  a  larger  population,  and  one  that  is  more  prosperous,  than  would 
be  the  case  if  the  valleys  were  subjected  to  destructive  floods.  In  a 
country  as  small  as  Switzerland,  and  one  which  contains  so  many 
high  and  rugged  mountains,  this  is  a  service  the  benefits  of  which 
can  not  be  measured  in  dollars.  It  is  in  Switzerland  also,  in  the  Sihl- 
wald,  that  forestry  demonstrates  beyond  contradiction  how  great  a 
yield  in  wood  and  money  it  may  bring  about  if  applied  consistently 
for  a  number  of  years. 

[Cir.  140] 


15 


AUSTRIA  AND  HUNGARY. 

AUSTRIA. 

In  Austria,  which  has  been  independent  of  the  German  Federation 
only  since  1866,  forestry  has,  in  the  main,  followed  German  lines. 
Austria-Hungary  is  one  of  the  largest  exporters  of  wood,  and  the 
yearly  exportations  reach  8,670,000  tons.  Germany  takes  more  than 
half  of  these  exports  and  the  rest  is  distributed  to  Italy,  Russia,  and 
Switzerland. 

Austria  has  24,000,000  acres  of  forest,  of  which  only  7  per  cent  be¬ 
longs  to  the  State  and  58  per  cent  is  private  land.  Communal  and 
entailed  forests  make  up  the  remainder.  Of  the  private  forests  34 
per  cent  is  in  estates  ranging  from  20,000  to  350,000  acres  in  area,  and 
for  the  last  fifty  years  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  total  forest  area  has 
been  held  in  large,  compact  bodies.  These  large  blocks  are  naturally 
favorable  to  forest  management.  Private  forestry  is  further  encour¬ 
aged  by  the  system  of  forest  taxation,  which  relieves  forests  in  which 
forestry  is  practiced.  In  the  United  States  there  are  many  enormous 
private  forest  holdings  on  which  forestry  would  unquestionably  be 
practiced  were  it  not  that  excessive  or  ill  devised  forest  taxation  effec¬ 
tually  discourages  it. 

The  total  net  revenue  from  the  Austrian  State  forests  is  over 
$5,000,000.  The  net  yearly  revenue  per  acre  of  21  cents  is  compara¬ 
tively  low,  due  mainly  to  the  facts  that  only  56  cents  per  acre  is  ex¬ 
pended  upon  the  forest  and  that  most  of  the  area  is  located  in  the 
rugged  Alps  and  Carpathians,  where  administration  and  logging  are 
costlv. 

The  present  forest  department  was  started  in  1872  in  response  to  a 
popular  outcry  against  the  policy  of  selling  State  lands.  That  policy 
resulted  in  reducing  the  area  of  State  forests  from  10,000,000  to  a 
little  over  7,000,000  acres  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  administration  was  reorganized  in  1904,  and  now  has 
three  departments — administration  proper,  reforestation  and  the  cor¬ 
rection  of  torrents,  and  forest  protection. 

Forestry  is  successfully  practiced  on  60  per  cent  of  all  the  Austrian 
forests  and  on  82  per  cent  of  the  private  forests,  and  excellent  results 
have  been  secured  by  cooperation  between  the  State  and  private  per¬ 
sons  in  forest  management,  particularly  under  the  law  of  1883.  The 
most  conspicuous  fruit  of  Austrian  forestry,  however,  is  the  reforest¬ 
ing  of  the  “  Karst.”  The  Karst  was  a  stretch  of  barren  lands  in  the 
hilly  country  of  Istria,  Trieste,  Dalmatia,  Montenegro,  and  neighbor¬ 
ing  territory  along  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  comprised  some 
600,000  acres.  For  centuries  it  had  furnished  the  ship  timbers  and 
other  wood  supplies  of  Venice,  but  excessive  cutting,  together  with 
burning  and  pasturing,  the  evil  results  of  clearing,  and  the  natural 

[Cir.  140] 


16 


condition  of  the  land,  had  left  it  a  waste  almost  beyond  recovery. 
Many  laws  had  been  passed  from  time  to  time  to  stop  the  forest  havoc, 
but  without  real  effect  till  1805.  In  that  year  the  Government,  per¬ 
suaded  by  the  forestry  association,  began  to  offer  help  to  landowners 
who  would  undertake  forest  planting.  Taxes  were  remitted  for 
periods  of  years,  technical  advice  was  given,  and  plant  material  as 
well  as  money  was  supplied.  Further  laws  were  found  necessary  in 
1882  and  1887  to  meet  the  objections  of  stockmen.  At  the  present 
time  over  400,000  acres,  or  two-thirds  of  the  Karst,  have  been  brought 
under  forest,  in  part  by  planting,  at  a  cost  of  from  $8  to  $10  an  acre, 
in  part  by  protection  and  the  natural  recuperation  so  made  possible. 

This  work  has  been  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  u  forest 
protective  service,”  which  was  first  created  for  Tyrol  in  1856  as  a 
result  of  floods  in  the  Tyrolese  Alps  in  1851  and  was  later  (1871- 
1874)  extended  to  the  rest  of  the  Empire.  This  service,  which  is  dis¬ 
tinct  from  the  State  forest  administration,  has  also  been  especially 
helpful  in  encouraging  private  forestry.  Though  at  first  regarded 
with  hostility,  it  is  now  held  in  high  regard  on  the  strength  of  the 
Avork  it  has  done  and  is  doing. 

Harmony  of  interest  between  the  State  and  private  forest  owners, 
which  the  whole  Austrian  forest  policy  favors,  is  notably  secured  by 
the  encouragement  of  the  wood  export  trade  through  such  provisions 
as  reduced  freight  rates,  the  absence  of  export  duties,  and  moderate 
forest  taxation. 

A  “  reboisement  ”  or  reforestation  law,  based  on  that  of  France, 
was  passed  in  1884,  to  control  torrents.  This  law  carries  an  annual 
appropriation  of  $100,000,  and  the  planting  work,  like  that  on  the 
lands  of  the  Karst,  is  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  protect¬ 
ive  service.”  For  the  regulation  of  the  lower  rivers  $1,350,000  was 
appropriated  at  the  same  time,  and  of  this  sum  $400,000  has  been 
successfully  expended  on  reforestation. 

HUNGARY. 

Hungary  has  23,000,000  acres  of  forest,  of  which  the  State  owns 
16  per  cent;  corporations,  20  per  cent;  churches,  cloisters,  and  other 
institutions,  7.5  per  cent;  and  private  persons  the  remainder.  From 
$10,000,000  to  $12,000,000  worth  of  wood  is  annually  exported. 

About  half  of  all  the  Hungarian  forests  are  under  working  plans, 
by  which  the  cut  is  regulated  so  as  to  proAude  for  a  sustained  yield, 
and  the  present  annual  cut  of  1,000,000.000  cubic  feet  is  belie\Ted  to 
be  considerably  less  than  the  wood  actually  produced.  The  State 
forests  yield  $600,000  net  annual  reA^enue. 

The  management  of  all  corporation  and  protection  forests  has  been 
supervised  by  the  GoArernment  since  1879,  and  all  so-called  “  absolute 

[Cir.  140] 


V 


17 

forest  land,”  in  other  words,  land  unfit  for  farming,  must  be  refor¬ 
ested  within  six  years  after  it  is  cleared.  Three-fourths  of  all  the 
forest  land  of  Hungary,  including  private  as  well  as  public  forests, 
falls  under  the  classification  of  absolute  forest  land.  Moreover,  all 
mountain  forests  are  required  to  be  managed  under  State  working 
plans.  Two-thirds  of  all  the  Hungarian  forests  are  brought  under 
this  sort  of  State  supervision.  Forest  planting  is  encouraged  by 
State  nurseries,  at  which  10,000,000  seedlings  are  raised  every  year 
for  free  distribution,  and  by  bounties  paid  for  forest  plantation 
established  on  private  waste  lands. 

Hungary  has  some  600  square  miles  of  shifting  sands  and  waste 
lands,  like  those  of  the  Landes  of  France.  The  work  of  reclaiming 
these  was  planned  by  the  law  of  1788.  Actual  planting  was  begun 
in  1817.  By  1869,  20,000  acres  had  been  forested,  and  parts  of  the 
plantations  were  beginning  to  yield  a  profit.  The  work  of  reforest¬ 
ing  is  constantly  going  on. 

NORWAY,  SWEDEN,  AND  DENMARK. 

NORWAY-. 

Only  21  per  cent,  or  20,000,000  acres,  of  Norway  is  in  forest. 
The  State  owns  less  than  2,000,000  acres  of  this.  Of  the  forest 
region  one-half  has  to  import  timber,  one- fourth  has  sufficient  for 
its  needs,  and  one-fourth  is  able  to  export  over  1,000,000  tons, 
valued  at  $18,000,000  a  year.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  exports  go  to 
England  and  most  of  the  rest  is  divided  up  between  Belgium,  Aus¬ 
tralia,  France,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Denmark.  The  total  annual 
cut,  one-fifth  of  which  is  exported,  is  about  500,000,000  cubic  feet.  It 
exceeds  by  1,500,000  cubic  feet  the  amount  of  wood  grown  by  all  the 
forest  in  the  same  time.  In  other  words,  the  cut  is  far  too  heavy  to 
last,  so  that  a  reduction  of  wood  exports  is  inevitable. 

Forestry  is  on  a  low  level.  The  various  provisions  for  the  better 
use  and  protection  of  the  forests,  which  began  three  hundred  years 
ago,  have  been  of  too  half-hearted  a  nature  to  meet  the  situation. 
There  is  a  forest  service,  but  the  officers  are  few  and  underpaid,  and 
the  districts  under  their  care — sometimes  several  million  acres  to 
each — are  far  too  large  for  effective  work.  Moreover,  there  are 
difficulties  over  the  forest  rights  which  were  earlier  granted  to  en¬ 
courage  the  development  of  the  country,  but  which  are  now  greatly 
in  the  way  of  establishing  property  rights  and  organizing  an  admin¬ 
istration. 

Since  1860  the  State  has  been  buying  cut-over  lands  in  order  to 
plant  them  to  forest  where  forest  protection  is  needed,  and  from 

$15,000  to  $20,000  a  year  has  been  spent  in  this  way  during  recent 
years. 

[Cir.  140] 


\ 


18 


The  communal  forests  are  supervised  by  the  Government,  and  are 
usually  managed  by  the  foresters  with  a  view  simply  to  supplying 
local  needs.  Sales  outside  the  parishes  are  permitted  only  where 
there  is  more  than  enough  for  these  needs. 

SWEDEN. 

Sweden  has  nearly  50,000,000  acres  of  forest,  covering  nearly  50 
per  cent  of  the  total  land  area.  Since  the  English  import  duties 
were  abolished  in  1866  the  wood  exports  from  Sweden  have  steadily 
increased,  till  now  Sweden  stands  next  to  Russia,  the  world  leader, 
in  wood  exports,  with  $54,000,000  worth  a  year,  representing  nearly 
4,500,000  tons.  England  takes  half  of  this,  followed  by  France, 
Denmark,  Germany,  Holland,  Cape  Colony,  Australia,  and  South 
America.  The  total  cut  from  the  forest  is  estimated  to  be  near 
1,000  million  cubic  feet. 

The  State  owns  about  13,500,000  acres,  or  33.2  per  cent,  and  con¬ 
trols  4,000,000  acres  more.  The  State  lands  are,  in  the  main,  of  lesser 
commercial  value,  and  this  fact,  together  with  the  existence  of  logging 
rights  granted  in  the  past,  keeps  the  net  income  for  the  present  down 
to  12  cents  an  acre.  Nevertheless,  since  1880  the  net  revenue  from  the 
State  forests  has  risen  from  $300,000  to  nearly  $2,000,000  a  year. 

Up  to  five  hundred  years  ago  Sweden  was  overburdened  by  forests, 
but  by  that  time  cutting  and  wasting  had  gone  so  far  that  the  willful 
setting  of  forest  fires  was  forbidden.  In  1638  overseers  of  communal 
forests  were  appointed  in  order  to  conserve  supplies  of  wood  for  char¬ 
coal  used  in  the  iron  industry.  A  general  law  followed  in  1647,  and  a 
director  of  forests  in  the  two  southern  districts  was  appointed  in  1720. 
All  through  the  eighteenth  century,  restrictions  upon  forest  use  were 
in  force.  Toward  the  close  of  the  century  there  was,  indeed,  a  prema¬ 
ture  scare  over  a  possible  timber  famine.  Y  et,  despite  this  legisla¬ 
tion,  and  much  legislation  which  followed,  waste  continued  to  go  on. 
While  measures  were  being  passed  to  conserve  the  forests,  the  com¬ 
munal  forests  and  town  forests  were  actually  being  sold.  It  was  not 
till  the  law  of  1903,  which  went  into  effect  in  January,  1905,  that  a 
satisfactory  policy  was  secured.  In  general,  this  requires  the  practice 
of  forestry.  As  in  Russia,  provincial  forest  protection  committees 
have  to  approve  the  local  felling  plans.  A  diameter  limit  is  set,  be¬ 
low  which  trees  may  not  be  cut.  Clearings  are  forbidden,  and  cleared 
land,  unless  used  for  other  purposes,  must  be  reforested.  Pasturing 
is  restricted  where  it  would  do  harm. 

In  the  past  thirty-five  years  the  State  has  increased  its  forest 
holdings  by  45  per  cent  through  the  purchase  and  reforesting  of 
wastes  and  sand  dunes  and  by  the  settlement  of  disputed  titles.  The 
purchases  amount  to  over  600,000  acres,  for  which  an  average  price 
of  $5.30  an  acre  was  paid. 

[Cir.  140] 


19 


Lumbering  is  carried  on  much  as  it  is  in  the  United  States.  The 
State,  as  a  rule,  sells  stumpage,  and  the  timber  is  removed  by  con¬ 
tractors.  Management  is  by  no  means  so  detailed  and  intensive  as  in 
Germany  or  France.  The  trees  which  are  to  be  cut  are  marked,  but 
no  attempt  is  ordinarily  made  to  prepare  complete  working  plans. 
Only  a  moderate  amount  of  planting  is  done  to  secure  the  future  crop, 
and  natural  reproduction  is  mainly  relied  upon. 

Forest  fires  continue  to  do  great  damage,  especially  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country.  A  forest  patrol  is  doing  effective  work,  however, 
in  checking  the  spread  of  fires. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  has  about  600,000  acres  under  forest,  of  which  the  State 
owns  over  23  per  cent,  or  142,000  acres.  About  75,000  acres  of 
wastes  are  in  process  of  reforestation. 

The  need  of  wiser  forest  use  was  felt  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
by  1 1 81  the  State  forests  were  placed  under  administration.  But  the 
clearing  of  the  forest  continued  at  such  a  rate  that  in  1805  it  was 
provided  that  the  still  existing  forests  of  beech  and  oak  should  be 
maintained  forever.  Further,  provision  was  made  as  to  the  selling 
of  the  peasants’  farms,  so  that  they  should  not  be  accumulated  in 
large  holdings  upon  which  the  peasants  would  have  to  depend  for 
their  wood. 

Since  1820  the  forest  area  has  been  increasing.  At  present  refor¬ 
esting  is  adding  to  it  very  considerably.  Nearly  200,000  acres  of 
heath  have  been  planted  in  the  last  forty  years.  To  this  work  of 
reclamation  the  State  contributes  $40,000  a  year. 

In  State  forests,  as  well  as  in  the  communal  forests  and  the 
farmer’s  woodlots,  forestry  is  carefully  and  profitably  practiced. 

RUSSIA  AND  FINLAND. 

RUSSIA. 

Russia’s  forests  are  of  vast  extent.  More  than  575,000,000  acres, 
or  39  per  cent,  of  European  Russia  is  forest,  and  the  Siberian  forests 
of  Asiatic  Russia  contain  about  350,000,000  acres.  In  the  more 
wooded  provinces  of  European  Russia  the  Government  owns  about 
89  per  cent  of  the  forest  land.  It  owns  65.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
forest  area.  In  general,  the  untouched  forest  resources  of  Russia 
comprise  two-thirds  of  the  whole  forest  area  of  Europe.  Over 
$30,000,000  worth  of  wood  is  exported.  The  principal  countries 
drawing  upon  Russia  are,  in  order,  England,  Germany,  Holland, 
and  France. 

[Cir.  140] 


20 


From  the  660,000,000  acres  of  State  forests  which  are  now  being 
worked  the  net  income  is  now  nearly  $21,o00,000,  or  cents  pei  acre. 

Russia  began  to  apply  forestry  before  the  time  of  want  had  ar¬ 
rived,  though  forest  havoc  had  been  wrought.  She  was  not  forced 
into  it  for  self-protection,  as  were,  for  instance,  Germany  and  France. 
The  lessons  mastered  by  such  other  countries  were  regarded  by  the 
Russian  government  as  convincing  enough  without  being  actually 
experienced.  The  United  States  stands  in  a  much  less  foitunate  posi¬ 
tion  with  regard  to  forestry.  With  us  the  verge  of  a  timber  famine 
has  already  been  crossed,  and  we  are  to  know  Avhat  it  means  to  pay 
for  forest  waste.  We  have  mortgaged  the  future  of  our  forests. 
Yet  it  is  still  possible  for  us  to  regain  our  forest  independence. 

Attention  was  first  turned  to  the  protection  of  Russian  forests 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  when  Czars  Michael  and 
Alexis  undertook  to  settle  property  rights  and  make  provision  against 
fire  and  theft.  By  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  more 
careful  use  of  the  forests,  especially  of  those  yielding  ship  timbers, 
was  insisted  upon  by  Peter  the  Great.  The  more  immediate  cause 
which  led  to  the  present  administration  was  the  forest  devastation 
which  followed  the  abolition  of  serfdom  (1861)  and  the  partition 
among  the  liberated  serfs  of  much  forest  property.  Complaints  were 
rife  in  1864,  and  several  laws  were  presently  promulgated,  the  last 
of  which  (1888)  provides  a  comprehensive  plan  for  the  conservation 
of  forests,  public  and  private.  The  worst  effects  of  devastation  were 
felt  in  the  southern  districts  near  the  steppes,  where  the  soil  and 
stream  flow  had  been  gravely  injured  by  clearings.  The  law, 
however,  which  was  passed  directly  as  a  result  of  these  evils,  applied 
to  all  European  Russia,  and  has  since  (in  1908)  been  made  applicable 
to  the  Caucasus,  the  Trans-Caucasus,  and  other  southern  provinces. 

Forests  which  hold  shifting  sands  or  protect  the  shores  of  rivers, 
canals,  and  other  waters,  as  well  as  those  which  serve  to  prevent  elu¬ 
sion  and  avalanches  in  the  mountain  districts,  are  classed  as  protec¬ 
tion  forests,  which  may  not  be  converted  to  agriculture  or  cleared 
or  used  as  pasture.  If  of  natural  growth,  protection  forests  aie  fiee 
from  taxes  forever ;  if  planted,  they  are  not  taxed  for  thirty  }  ears. 

Private  forests  not  classed  as  protective  may  be  cleared  only  on 
certain  conditions,  which,  as  a  rule,  provide  for  returning  the  land 
to  forest  or  at  least  for  offsetting  the  clearing  by  growing  a  planta¬ 
tion. 

Over  100,000,000  acres  of  private  forests  have  been  placed  under 
supervision  as  protection  forests. 

In  each  province  and  district  there  is  a  forest  protection  committee 
composed  of  local  administrative  officers,  including  one  or  two  for¬ 
esters,  the  justice  of  the  peace  or  other  justice,  the  county  council,  and 

[Cir.  140] 


21 


two  elected  forest  owners,  with  the  governor  as  president.  These  com¬ 
mittees  decide  which  forests  are  “protective”  and  which  are  not ;  ap¬ 
prove  working  plans ;  direct  what  clearings  may  be  made,  and  exer¬ 
cise  police  powers  in  cooperation  with  the  local  forest  administration. 

Private  forest  owners  may  secure  expert  advice  on  forestry  without 
charge.  Seedlings  are  distributed,  and  working  plans  for  protective 
forests  are  made,  free  of  cost.  The  Imperial  Loan  Bank  advances 
money  on  forests  for  which  the  government  has  made  working  plans 
insuring  conservative  management.  In  this  way  7,000,000  acres  were 
mortgaged  in  1900. 

FINLAND. 

Finland  has  50,000,000  acres,  or  63  per  cent  of  the  whole  land  area, 
in  forest.  It  exports  each  year  170,000,000  cubic  feet  of  wood,  valued 
at  $20,000,000,  principally  to  England,  France,  Germany,  and  Hol¬ 
land. 

Most  of  the  forest— that  is,  between  35,000,000  and  45,000,000  acres— 
is  State  property.  Since  1869  the  State  forests  have  been  conserva¬ 
tively  lumbered,  but  until  the  private  forests  are  depleted  it  will  not 
pay  to  make  the  management  as  thoroughgoing  as  it  ought  to  be. 
Little  can  now  be  done  beyond  restricting  wasteful  cutting  and  fires. 
However,  since  no  trees  are  cut  which  are  less  than  10  inches  in 
diameter  25  feet  from  the  ground,  there  wdll  be  a  good  stock  of  tim¬ 
ber  to  count  on  when  the  inevitable  rise  of  wood  prices  makes  inten¬ 
sive  management  pay  as  it  already  pays  where  the  markets  for  wood 
are  better  than  the  average.  Working  plans  for  the  forests  are  con¬ 
stantly  being  made  by  a  corps  of  forest  surveyors. 

Though  mainly  in  small  parcels*  the  private  forests  contribute 
four-fifths  of  the  timber  exported,  in  order  to  furnish  which  they  are 
destructively  overcut.  Thus  far  all  attempts  to  regulate  their  use 
have  been  vain,  and  they  are  certain  soon  to  be  exhausted. 

Cleaiing  along  waters  adapted  for  fishing,  as  well  as  clearing  more 
than  12  acres  anywheie  without  providing  for  new  growth,  have  been 
forbidden  since  1886. 

INDIA. 

The  forests  of  India  in  the  territory  under  British  control  cover 
nearly  180,000,000  acres,  or  24  per  cent  of  British  territory.  Of  this  a 
little  over  149,000,000  acres  are  State  lands,  principally  under  forest. 
The  rest  of  India,  comprising  600,000  square  miles,  is  made  up  of 
native  states  under  British  suzerainty,  some  of  which  have  as  much 
as  24  per  cent  under  forest.  Not  all  of  the  British  State  forests  will 
remain  under  State  control,  since  those  now  under  management 
include  three  classes  of  forest,  namely,  reserved,  protected,  and 
unclassed,  of  which  only  the  reserved  forests  are  permanent.  The 

[Cir.  140] 


22 


reserved  forests  now  comprise  9.5  per  cent  of  the  state  forests.  In  the 
course  of  time,  it  is  expected,  they  will  comprise  at  least  15  per  cent 
of  the  total  area  of  British  India.  The  value  of  forest  products 
annually  exported  is  over  $144,000,000.  The  annual  net  revenue  from 
the  State  forests  has  risen  in  forty  years  from  $240,000  to  $3,300,000. 

The  coming  of  forestry  in  India  was  the  result  of  peculiar  local 
conditions  which  differed  in  many  respects  from  those  of  older  forest 
countries.  Among  these  were  the  practically  complete  dependence 
of  the  people  upon  wood,  the  aggravated  wastefulness  of  forest  cut¬ 
ting,  and  a  shortage  of  the  teak  wood  required  for  the  British  public 
works  at  Bombay  and  other  places.  Many  difficulties  beset  the  way 
of  reform  when  reform  was  forced  upon  the  government.  The 
ignorance  and  wastefulness  of  the  natives,  the  destructive  popular 
rights  to  the  use  of  the  forests  for  wood  and  pasture  which  had 
grown  up  during  the  ages  under  loose  native  administration,  and  the 
lack  of  a  central  authority  strong  enough  to  enforce  regulation,  all 
helped  to  make  the  situation  a  difficult  one.  \  et  the  Indian  forest 
service  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  in  the  world.  The  right  of  the 
State  to  intervene  for  the  general  welfare  by  protecting  and  develop¬ 
ing  the  forest  has  been  clearly  recognized  and  successfully  applied. 
This  is  the  reverse  of  the  case  in  Great  Britain. 

In  the  size  of  the  country,  the  variety  of  the  climates,  the  old  habits 
of  forest  waste,  the  damage  done  by  fire,  the  existence  of  arid  regions 
and  deserts,  the  problem  of  floods,  the  importance  of  grazing,  the 
possibilities  of  irrigation,  and,  finally,  the  extent  of  the  national  for¬ 
ests  (India  149,000,000  acres,  the  United  States  160,000,000  acres), 
Indian  forestry  has  broad  lines  of  resemblance  to  forestry  in  the 
United  States.*  Of  the  cultivated  acreage  30,000,000  acres  depend 
upon  irrigation.  But  the  differences  between  the  conditions  in  the 
two  countries  are  no  less  striking.  The  backward  industrial  stage 
of  India,  the  fact  that  TO  per  cent  of  its  population  are  engaged  in 
agriculture,  its  lack  of  available  coal  and  the  consequent  dependence 
of  the  people  upon  wood  for  fuel,  and  the  exceptional  character  ot  its 
forest  products,  clearly  indicate  that  progress  in  forestry  can  not 
move  so  rapidly  there  as  here. 

Great  areas  must  be  kept  under  forest  in  India  in  order  to  supply 
local  demands.  Although  the  coast  line  is  long,  the  co  ^ 
large  that  wood  importations  would  generally  involve  very  long 
hauls,  which  would  greatly  add  to  the  cost  of  wood.  In  this  re¬ 
spect  the  railway  has  not  brought  the  changes  which  have  followed  it 
in  other  countries.  Instead  of  carrying  in  foreign  wood  to  supply 
home  production  the  railways  have  themselves  made  fresh  demands 
for  local  construction  material,  and  instead  of  carrying  in  new  fuel 
they  have  in  many  cases  drawn  upon  local  wood  for  their  own  fuel. 
Iron  mines  are  not  conveniently  located,  so  that  wood  must  long  con- 

[Cir.  140] 


23 


tinue  to  be  used  in  place  of  iron  and  steel  in  construction.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  forest  area  needed  to  supply  fuel,  twice  that  area  ought  to 
be  maintained  in  forest  for  construction  timber,  boat  building,  tools, 
implements,  public  works,  railways,  etc.  One-half  an  acre  of  forest 
per  head  of  population  will  be  needed  to  meet  all  these  demands. 
This  would  call  for  17  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  British  prov¬ 
inces;  and  the  other  large  demands  for  minor  products,  principally 
range  and  grass,  would  raise  the  minimum  requirements  for  forest  to 
25  per  cent  of  that  area.  Since,  at  the  best,  not  more  than  15  per  cent 
of  British  India  is  likely  to  become  State  forest  lands,  the  need  of 
broadening  the  field  of  forest  management  is  very  obvious. 

The  need  of  what  the  English  term  “  forest  conservancy  ”  was  felt 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  on  account  of  the  dif¬ 
ficulty  in  securing  the  timber  required  for  public  works.  A  timber 
agency  was  established  at  Bombay,  but  was  abolished  in  1823  because 
of  friction  with  local  civil  officers.  In  1843  the  protection  of  teak 
forests  was  vigorously  agitated,  and  a  teak  plantation  was  started 
which  is  now  well  known  as  the  Ailambur  teak  plantation.  A  con¬ 
servator  of  forests  was  appointed  in  Bombay  in  1847.  Forest  con¬ 
servancy  was  commenced  in  Mysore  in  the  same  year,  and  in  1856  a 
conservator  of  forests  was  appointed  in  Madras.  The  first  compre¬ 
hensive  forest  policy  for  India  was,  however,  laid  down  in  1856  by 
Lord  Dalhousie,  who,  at  the  close  of  his  administration,  appointed 
the  celebrated  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  to  the  post  of  superintendent  of 
the  forests  of  Pegu,  which  had  been  annexed  by  England.  By  dint 
of  persistent  effort  Brandis  succeeded  in  carrying  through  measures 
to  protect  the  supplies  of  teak  in  the  Burma  forests,  which  now  yield 
an  annual  net  revenue  of  $810,000,  and  became  the  first  inspector-gen¬ 
eral  of  forests.  From  that  time  the  various  other  presidencies  have 
been  putting  forestry  into  practice,  and  the  forest  laws  of  1865  and 
1878  complete  the  legislation  necessary  to  carry  on  the  present  suc¬ 
cessful  forest  department. 

Forest  fires  were  always  exceedingly  destructive  in  India,  but  since 
1860  protective  measures  have  been  so  improved  that  an  area  of 
3,500,000  acres,  or  36  per  cent  of  the  area  of  reserved  State  forests,  is 
now  effectively  protected  against  fire.  The  protected  area  is  to  be 
steadily  increased. 

Working  plans  for  3,000,000  acres  are  being  carried  out,  and  plans 
for  a  million  acres  more  are  being  prepared. 

Since  forest  planting  was  begun,  more  than  sixty  years  ago,  128,000 
acres  have  been  planted,  about  one-half  of  which,  consisting  of  teak, 
will  materially  increase  the  output  of  teak  from  Burma  hereafter. 

The  State  forests  are  handled  on  the  principle  of  a  sustained  and 
increasing  yield.  Both  natural  reproduction  and  artificial  planting 

[Cir.  140] 


24 


are  used  to  keep  up  the  forest  growth  as  areas  are  cut  over.  The 
large  increase  of  the  net  returns  shows  how  effectively  this  system  of 
management  is  working. 

JAPAN. 

Japan  has  nearly  58,000,000  acres,  or  59  per  cent  of  its  total  area, 
under  forests.  The  State  owns  nearly  33,000,000  acres  (56.8  per 
cent)  ;  the  Crown  nearly  5,250,000  (9.1  per  cent)  ;  municipalities 
over  4,250,000  (7.5  per  cent)  ;  shrines  and  temples  nearly  500,000  (0.7 
per  cent),  and  private  owners  nearly  15,000,000  (25.9  per  cent). 
Although  more  timber  is  imported  than  is  exported,  Japan  exports 
nearly  $1,250,000  worth  of  wood  and  $4,250,000  worth  of  matches. 
The  net  revenue  from  the  State  forests  has  risen  16  per  cent  in  the 
past  twenty  years,  and  is  now  $8,000,000  a  year. 

Under  the  old  feudal  system  of  Japan  the  forests  were  for  centuries 
reserved  and  cared  for,  and  a  continuous  policy  was  assured.  In 
fact,  Japanese  forests  have  been  managed  longer  than  any  of  those 
of  Europe.  The}7,  were  controlled  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
during  the  early  Christian  centuries  forest  planting  on  watersheds 
to  prevent  floods  was  enforced  by  frequent  edicts,  and  the  felling  of 
trees  was  supervised  by  officers  of  the  provinces.  As  a  result,  Japan 
alone  among  the  nations  began  modern  industrial  progress  with  its 
forests  not  only  unimpaired  but  improved  after  centuries  of  use. 

When,  in  1868,  the  feudal  Government  of  the  Shoguns  passed  away 
and  the  Mikado  was  restored  to  power,  the  old  restrictions  were  re¬ 
moved  and  the  forest  was  over-used  wherever  it  was  within  easy  reach 
of  the  market.  Ten  years  later  public-spirited  men  demanded  the 
reservation  and  administration  of  national  forests.  By  1882  a  first 
draft  of  forest  laws  was  prepared  by  officers  who  had  been  trained  as 
foresters  in  Germany,  and,  after  preliminary  legislation,  the  general 
forest  law  of  1897  resulted.  Under  this  law  the  State  and  Crown 
forests  are  administered  and  the  cutting  of  private,  municipal,  and 
religious  forests  is  regulated.  A  part  of  the  expenses  of  administra¬ 
tion  is  paid  out  of  a  special  fund  secured  by  the  sale  of  certain  small 
State  forests  which  it  is  not  desired  to  retain.  These  sales  return 
about  $1,000,000  a  year,  which  is  spent  in  forest  improvement  work, 
including  surveys,  planting,  and  the  preparation  of  working  plans. 
The  State  forests  of  Japan  produce  about  2,000,000,000  cubic  feet  a 
year. 

There  are  two  classes  of  forest,  called  “  reserve  ”  and  *k  available  ’ 
forests.  The  first  are  guarded  from  reckless  felling  which  would  ex^ 
pose  the  soil  to  injury.  The  second  are  intended  to  be  developed  to 
their  fullest  capacity  as  a  source  of  wealth  for  the  country. 

During  the  past  twenty-five  years  200,000  acres  of  forest  have  been 
planted  at  an  average  cost  of  a  little  less  than  $9  per  acre. 

[Cir.  140] 


25 


Private  forests  are  under  Government  supervision.  Where  they 
protect  mountain  slopes  they  can  not  be  cleared  without  permission, 
but  must  be  handled  so  as  to  keep  the  forest  cover  intact. 

The  J apanese  forests  are  administered  in  many  ways  like  our  own. 
The  personnel  is  made  up  of  trained  men.  Up  to  recent  years 
Japanese  students  of  forestry  had  to  be  educated  abroad.  Now, 
however,  they  may  receive  thorough  instruction  in  their  own  country. 

ITALY. 

Italy  has  some  10,000,000  acres  of  forest,  nearly  15  per  cent  of  the 
land  area,  and  one-third  of  an  acre  for  each  inhabitant.  The  State 
owns  only  4  per  cent  of  this;  communal  forests  cover  43  per  cent, 
and  private  forests  53  per  cent.  Wood  valued  at  $14,000,000  (420,000 
tons)  is  imported  every  year,  and  wood  importations  have  doubled 
in  the  last  decade. 

Most  of  the  forests  of  the  country  are  exceedingly  poor.  Nearly 
half  of  them  are  made  up  of  coppice  woods  or  young  stump  shoots, 
which  yield  but  little  besides  the  small  wood  used  for  fuel  and  char¬ 
coal.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  wood  produced  at  home  is  small  wood 
of  this  character.  Wherever  timber  of  good  size  is  within  reach  the 
forest  has  been  devastated.  Indeed,  existing  forests  are  so  far  gone 
that  much  time  and  outlay  will  be  necessary  to  increase  their  produc¬ 
tiveness. 

Italy  has  suffered  extremely  from  the  ruin  which  follows  the  re¬ 
moval  of  protective  forests.  One-third  of  all  the  land  is  unpro¬ 
ductive,  and  though  some  of  this  area  may  be  made  to  support  forest 
growth,  one-fourth  of  it  is  beyond  reclamation,  mainly  as  the  result 
of  cleared  hillsides  and  the  pasturing  of  goats.  The  rivers  are  dry 
in  summer;  in  spring  they  are  wild  torrents,  and  the  floods,  brown 
with  the  soil  of  the  hillsides,  bury  the  fertile  lowland  fields.  The 
hills  are  scored  where  the  rains  have  loosened  the  soil,  and  landslides 
have  left  exposed  the  sterile  rocks,  on  which  no  vegetation  finds  a 
foothold.  Such  floods  as  that  of  1897,  near  Bologna,  which  did  over 
$1,000,000  damage,  destroy  property  and  life. 

The  dearth  of  wood  and  especially  the  great  need  of  protection 
forests  to  control  stream  flow  have  brought  some  excellent  forest  laws. 
In  spite  of  the  first  general  forest  law  (1877),  which  regulated  cut¬ 
ting  and  forbade  clearing  on  mountain  slopes,  large  areas  have  per¬ 
sistently  been  cleared,  and  though  provision  has  been  made  for 
thorough  reforesting  work,  very  little  of  the  needed  planting  has  been 
done.  The  classification  of  the  lands  to  which  restrictions  shall  and 
shall  not  apply  is  a  constant  matter  of  dispute.  An  effort  has  been 
made  to  show  that  the  forest  planting  contemplated  by  law  is  largely 
unnecessary.  The  last  point,  however,  has  been  safely  settled  by 

[Cir.  140] 


26 


recommendations  of  a  recent  commission,  which  declare  that  at  least 
500,000  acres  will  have  to  be  planted  at  a  cost  of  not  less  than 
$12,000,000  before  the  destructive  torrents,  brought  on  by  stripping 
and  overgrazing  the  hillsides,  can  be  controlled. 

Italy  has  found  it  too  expensive  to  enforce  her  forest  laws.  She  is 
finding  it  many  times  more  expensive  to  leave  them  unenforced. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 

SPAIN. 

Spain  has  only  about  12,000,000  acres  under  forest,  about  seven- 
tenths  of  an  acre  for  each  inhabitant.  Practically  all  of  this  is  State 
land.  Thirteen  and  one-half  million  dollars’  worth  of  wood  products 
are  imported  every  year.  Lesser  forest  products,  such  as  cork,  tan- 
bark,  and  nuts,  are  exported. 

Spain  has  suffered  very  greatly  from  destructive  floods  caused  by 
insufficient  forest  cover  in  mountain  country,  and  has  enacted  rather 
elaborate  laws  to  prevent  overcutting  and  to  reforest  clear  areas.  But 
anxiety  to  get  the  country  out  of  debt  has,  on  the  other  hand,  led  to 
the  sale  of  forest  land  and  to  much  disagreement  over  the  classifica¬ 
tion  of  forest  land  needed  for  wood  supplies  and  protective  cover. 
With  laws  nearly  as  good  as  those  of  Italy,  Spain  is  much  further 
from  accomplishing  actual  results  in  forestry. 

PORTUGAL. 

Portugal  has  about  80,000  acres  of  State  forest  land.  Thirty  thou¬ 
sand  acres  of  this  consists  of  sand  dunes  which  are  being  made  pro¬ 
ductive  by  forest  planting.  In  the  very  poorest  part  of  the  country 
there  is  a  planted  pinery  of  about  25,000  acres  which  produces  good 
returns  in  timber  and  naval  stores.  There  is  an  excellent  law  for 
the  encouragement  of  reforesting  work,  with  liberal  appropriations. 

SLAVIC  KINGDOMS. 

The  Slavic  States  of  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro,  Roumelia,  and 
Roumania,  controlled  by  Turkey  for  centuries,  were  made  independ¬ 
ent  kingdoms  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878.  Roumelia  was 
joined  to  Bulgaria  in  1885.  So  far  Roumania  alone  has  availed  her¬ 
self  of  her  new  freedom  to  provide  for  the  wiser  use  of  her  forest 
resources. 

ROUMANIA. 

The  forests  of  Roumania  were  depleted  while  the  country  was 
under  Turkish  rule,  and  only  between  17  and  20  per  cent  of  the  land 
is  now  wooded.  In  1881  the  first  effective  law  was  passed.  The  State 
royal  and  communal  forests  are  now  placed  under  management,  and 
such  private  forests  as  are  located  on  steep  slopes  and  near  streams 

[Cir.  140] 


27 


are  supervised.  This  plan  of  protection  covers  84  per  cent  of  the 
whole  forest  area.  In  these  forests  clearings  can  be  made  only  by 
permit  and  all  cutting  must  be  done  in  accordance  with  approved 
working  plans.  Over  200,000  acres  of  State  forests  and  500,000  acres 
of  private  forests  are  now  more  or  less  completely  organized.  The 
main  obstacle  in  the  way  of  perfecting  forest  management  is  the  lack 
of  transportation  facilities.  Only  65  per  cent  of  the  State  forests  can 
now  be  worked. 

Since  1892,  2  per  cent  of  the  gross  returns  from  the  forests  have 
been  set  aside  as  a  forest  improvement  fund. 

The  State  forests  yield  about  $1,000,000  a  year,  a  net  return  of  30 
cents  per  acre.  The  State  has  reclaimed  18,000,000  acres  of  sand 
dunes  by  forest  planting  and  has  forested  9,000  acres  of  other  land. 
The  forest  nurseries  in  which  the  stock  is  grown  cover  330  acres. 

Some  of  the  large  private  forests,  particularly  that  of  Princess 
Schoenburg,  are  carefully  managed. 

The  government  distributes  forest  seeds  and  seedlings  to  com¬ 
munes,  corporations,  and  schools.  For  four  years  past  foresters  have 
been  sent  to  Austria,  Germany,  and  France  for  the  purpose  of  study¬ 
ing  the  methods  of  forest  planting  followed  in  those  countries,  and 
many  students  have  been  placed  in  the  western  forest  schools,  who 
later  will  enter  the  Roumanian  forest  administration. 

CHINA. 

China  holds  a  unique  position  as  the  only  civilized  country  which 
has  jiersistently  destroyed  its  forests.  What  forestry  has  done  in 
other  countries  stands  out  in  bold  relief  against  the  background  of 
China,  whose  hills  have  been  largely  stripped  clean  of  all  vegetation 
and  whose  soil  is  almost  completely  at  the  mercy  of  the  floods.  Trees 
have  been  left  only  where  they  could  not  be  reached.  Almost  the  sole 
use  for  lumber  is  the  manufacture  of  coffins.  The  heavy  2  or  3  inch 
planks  for  this  purpose  are  so  scarce,  and  the  cost  of  transporting 
them  by  coolies  is  so  high,  that  they  sell  for  $2  or  $3  apiece. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  the  forest  cleaned  off  down  to  the  very 
soil  as  it  is  in  China.  TV  lien  the  trees  are  gone  the  saplings,  the 
shrubs,  and  even  the  herbage  are  taken.  Slender  poles  are  used  to 
build  houses;  inconsiderable  shrubs  are  turned  into  charcoal.  In 
the  lower  mountains  of  northeastern  China,  where  the  stripping 
process  has  reached  its  extreme  phase,  there  is  no  trace  of  anything 
worthy  of  the  name  of  forest.  In  the  graveyards  and  courts  of  the 
temples  a  few  aged  cedars  have  been  preserved  by  the  force  of  public 
opinion,  and  poplars  and  fruit  trees  planted  about  dwellings  are 
protected  as  private  property  by  the  peasant  owners. 

In  the  province  of  Shantung,  where  deforestation  is  practically 
complete,  fuel  and  fodder  for  cattle  are  literally  scratched  from  the 

[Cir.  140] 


28 


hillsides  by  boys  who  go  out  from  villages  with  their  iron  rakes  in 
autumn  to  secure  winter  supplies.  Grazing  animals,  searching  every 
ledge  and  crevice,  crop  the  remaining  grass  down  to  the  very  roots. 

A  dearth  of  wood  is  not  the  only  forlorn  result  of  forest  devasta¬ 
tion  ;  a  dearth  of  water  and  the  ruin  of  the  soil  follow  in  its  train. 
In  western  China,  where  forest  destruction  is  not  yet  complete, 
enough  vegetation  covers  the  mountains  to  retard  the  run-off  of  the 
rains  and  return  sufficient  moisture  to  lower  levels,  where  it  can  be 
reached  by  the  roots  of  crops  and  where  springs  are  numerous.  But 
on  the  waste  hills  of  eastern  China  the  rains  rush  off  from  the  barren 
surfaces,  flooding  the  valleys,  ruining  the  fields,  and  destroying  towns 
and  villages.  No  water  is  retained  at  the  higher  levels,  so  that  none 
is  fed  underground  to  the  lower  soils  or  to  the  springs.  As  a  result, 
even  on  the  plains  the  water  level  is  too  far  beneath  the  surface  to  be 
used.  Without  irrigation  and  the  ingenious  terracing  of  hillsides,  by 
which  the  rains  are  made  to  wash  the  soil  into  thousands  of  minia¬ 
ture  fields  whose  edges  are  propped  up  by  walls,  agriculture  would 
be  entirely  impossible.  Even  irrigation  calls  for  the  immense  labor 
of  drawing  the  needed  water  from  wells. 

In  a  word,  the  Chinese,  by  forest  waste,  have  brought  upon  them¬ 
selves  two  costly  calamities — floods  and  water  famine.  The  forest 
school  just  opened  at  Mukden  is  the  first  step  in  the  direction  of  re¬ 
pairing  this  waste  so  far  as  it  now  may  be  repaired. 

CANADA. 

About  one-third  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  1,249,000  square 
miles,  or  nearly  800,000,000  acres,  is  classed  as  woodland,  though 
the  area  stocked  with  commercial  timber  probably  does  not  exceed 
260,000,000  acres.  The  net  exports  of  wood  are  over  2,000,000  tons  a 
year — more  than  double  those  of  the  United  States.  The  per  capita 
consumption  is  high — 60  cubic  feet  a  year  for  timber  and  132  cubic 
feet  for  fuel.  A  forest  office  in  the  department  of  the  interior  has 
been  established  since  1899,  and  since  1901  a  protective  service  of  fire 
rangers  has  been  organized  in  some  of  the  Dominion  lands,  with 
excellent  results.  Farmers  and  others,  particularly  in  the  central 
prairie  regions,  have  been  supplied  free  of  charge  with  7,000,000 
seedlings  for  forest  plantation. 

In  the  Dominion  and  the  Provinces,  together,  203,500,000  acres 
have  been  made  “  forest  reserves.”  The  porportion  of  land  in  these 
reserves  which  at  present  bears  merchantable  timber  is,  however,  in 
many  cases  small.  Thus,  while  the  reserves  of  British  Columbia, 
recently  created,  nominally  cover  100,000,000  acres,  it  is  believed  that 
not  more  than  one-tenth  of  this  area  has  a  growth  of  commercial 
timber. 


[Cir.  140] 


29 


TURKEY. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are  large  and  valuable  forests  in  Tur¬ 
key,  Macedonia  alone  having  at  least  5,000,000  acres,  Turkey  is  with¬ 
out  forestry.  Much  of  the  forest  is  difficult  of  access,  and  the  rest 
of  it  is  devastated. 

THE  CHIEF  LESSON’S  OF  FORESTRY  ABROAD. 

What  forestry  has  done  in  other  countries  shows,  first  of  all,  that 
forestry  pays,  and  that  it  pays  best  where  the  most  money  is  expended 
in  applying  it.  Both  these  points  are  very  clearly  brought  out  in  the 
following  table: 


Expenditures  and  revenues  of  national  forests,  showing  higher  productiveness 

under  larger  expenditures .a 


Country. 

Total  net 
revenue 
from  Gov¬ 
ernment 
forests. 

Expendi¬ 
ture  per 
acre. 

\ 

Net  reve¬ 
nue  per 
acre. 

Wurttemberg _ 

$3,098,428 

2,299,000 

829,162 

744,209 

237,663 

17,054,144 

5,128,348 

4,737,250 

$2.05 

3.00 

3.58 
1.25 
1.32 

1.58 
1.99 

.95 

$6.60 
5.30 
4.42 
4.29 
2.55 
2.50 
2.22 
1.75 
.33 
.32 
.21 
.18 
.17 
.09 
.032 
b  .0001 
.00086 

Saxony -  _  __ 

Hesse _  _  _  _  __  _  _ _ _ 

Switzerland—. _ _ _ _ _  _  _  _ 

Prussia _ _  _ _ 

Bavaria _  — _  _ 

Prance _ _ _  _  _ _  _ __ 

Hungary  _  .  _  _  _  __  _  _ 

.34 

.56 

Austria _ _ _  __  __  _____________ 

5,313,000 

482,600 

Roumania _  _  _  __  _ 

Sweden _ _  _  _  _  _  _ 

1,677,672 
21,500,000 
& 12,000 
128,659 

.02 

.01 

.007 

.0093 

Russia _  _  _ _  _ 

United  States _ 

iiyiio— 7__ 

a  Prepared  from  the  latest  available  data.  &  Deficit. 


It  is  plain  that  the  United  States  is  enormously  behindhand  in  its 
expenditure  for  the  management  of  the  National  Forests,  but  that 
nevertheless  returns  have  already  increased  with  increased  expendi¬ 
ture  for  management. 

A  second  lesson,  clearly  brought  home  by  foreign  forestry,  is  the 
need  of  timely  action,  since  forest  waste  can  be  repaired  only  at  great 
cost. 

Third,  private  initiative  does  not  suffice  by  itself  to  prevent  waste¬ 
ful  forest  use.  England,  it  is  true,  has  so  far  consistently  followed  a 
let-alone  policy.  However,  England  has  been  depending  upon  foreign 
supplies  of  wood.  Now  that  all  Europe  is  running  behind  every  year 
in  the  production  of  wood  (2,620,000  tons)  and  there  are  unmistak¬ 
able  signs  that  countries  which  lead  as  exporters  of  wood  will  have 
to  curtail  their  wood  exports,  England  is  at  last  feeling  her  depend¬ 
ence  and  is  speculating  uneasily  as  to  where  she  can  certainly  secure 
what  wood  she  needs  in  the  future. 

TCir.  140] 


30 


Fourth,  when  the  forest  countries  are  compared  as  to  wood  imports 
and  exports,  and  when  it  is  realized  that  a  number  of  the  countries 
which  practice  forestry  are  even  now  on  the  wood-importing  list,  the 
need  of  forestry  in  the  export  countries  is  doubly  enforced. 


Net  wood  imports  and  wood  exports  of  forest  countries.n 
[Average  data,  calculated  from  the  returns  of  five  years.] 


Country. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Country. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Great  Britain  and  Ire- 

Tons. 

9,290,000 

4,600,000 

1,230,000 

1,020,000 

470,000 

420,000 

330,000 

210,000 

200,000 

180,000 

170,000 

160,000 

150,000 

60,000 

50,000 

50,000 

50,000 

35,000 

Tons. 

Mauritius _ _  _ 

Tons. 

20,000 

15,000 

10,000 

5,000 

Tons. 

Servia—  _ 

Ceylon _ _ 

Japan _  _  - 

Belgium 

West  India,  Mexico, 
Honduras,  etc  _  _ 

13,000 

28,000 

55,000 

60,000 

1,020,000 

1,040,000 

2,144,000 

3,670,000 

4,460,000 

5,900,000 

Ttalv 

West  Coast  of  Africa-  .. 

India _ _ _ - _ _ - 

Sinain 

Roumania _ 

United  States _ _ 

- 

Norway _ - _ _ 

Switzerland 

Dominion  of  Canada 
and  Newfoundland--  - 

xx Uo  LI  dlcloiu  —  —  — —  — - - - 

Anstria-TTnngarv__  __ 

vy cl C  OX  UUUu  U- O pi/-  —  —  —  —  —  - 

Sweden  _  _ —  - 

Russia,  with  Finland  . 

| 

Bnlerfl.ri» 

Total - - 

18,725,000 

18,390,000 

rjrpppp 

a  From  tables  in  Schlich’s  Manual  of  Forestry,  vol.  1,  3d  edition. 


Russia,  Sweden,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Canada,  for  instance,  are 
making  good  the  wood  deficit  of  a  large  part  of  the  world.  Sweden 
cuts  much  more  wood  (106,000,000  cubic  feet)  than  she  produces; 
Russia,  in  spite  of  her  enormous  forest  resources,  has  probably  entered 
the  same  road;  and  England,  the  leading  importer  of  wood,  must 
count  more  and  more  on  Canada.  But  the  United  States  consumes 
every  year  from  three  to  four  times  the  wood  which  its  forests  pro¬ 
duce,  and  in  due  time  will  doubtless  take  all  the  wood  that  Canada 
can  spare.  In  other  words,  unless  the  countries  of  the  western  hemi¬ 
sphere  apply  forestry  promptly  and  thoroughly,  they  will  one  day 
assuredly  be  held  responsible  for  a  world-wide  timber  famine. 

Fifth,  in  comparison  with  foreign  countries  the  prospects  for 
forestry  in  the  United  States  are  particularly  bright,  for  the  fol¬ 
lowing  reasons: 

(1)  We  start  with  the  assurance  that  success  may  certainly  be 
attained. 

(2)  We  have  few  of  the  handicaps  which  have  trammeled  other 
countries.  We  have  no  ancient  forest  rights  and  usages  with  which 
to  contend,  or  troublesome  property  questions  to  settle. 

(3)  The  results  which  other  lands  have  achieved  by  long  struggle, 
often  with  bitter  costs,  are  free  to  us  to  use  as  we  wish.  We  have,  it 
is  true,  our  purely  National  and  local  forest  questions,  but  the  key 
to  many  of  them  is  somewhere  in  the  keeping  of  the  countries  which 
have  achieved  forestry. 

[Cir.  140] 


31 


(4)  In  variety  combined  with  value  our  forests  are  without  a 
parallel  in  the  world.  They  produce  timber  adapted  to  the  greatest 
variety  of  uses,  so  that,  except  to  meet  shortage,  importations  of 
wood  are  unnecessary.  Furthermore,  transportation  facilities  enable 
us  to  make  every  forest  region  available.  Thus,  by  specializing  our 
forest  management,  each  kind  of  forest  may  be  made  to  yield  the 
kind  of  material  for  which  it  is  best  adapted,  and  the  wastes  due 
to  compulsory  use  of  local  supplies  may  be  practically  eliminated. 

Approved : 

James  Wilson,  Secretary. 

Washington,  D,  C.,  December  1907. 

[Cir.  140] 

o 


4RESSJ 

.,P+f)n 


c 


«,30. c 

i*'  I  1  '  l,i*- 


f  ’  \  M 


& 


PROGRESS  REPORT 


E 


ALTGELD  HALL  STACKS 


OF 


ARTESIAN  AND  UNDERFLOW  INVESTIGATION 


BETWEEN  THE 


NINETY-SEVENTH  DEGREE  OF  WEST  LONGITUDE  AND 
THE  FOOT-HILLS  OF  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS, 


WITH 


7f 

r • 


MAPS  AND  PROFILES. 


PART  II* 


PREPARED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BY 

EI>WIN  S.  NETTLETON,  C.  E., 

CHIEF  ENGINEER  OF  INVESTIGATION. 


WASHINGTON : 

'GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1891. 


LIBRARY  OF  THE 
UN  I  V  ERS  ITY 
[OF  I  LLI  NOIA'I 

COLLEGEOI, 

ENGINEERING 


From  the  liiiranj  of 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 
OCKERSON 

CLASS  Of  ]  &  7  5 

Presented/  j\\aiJ  l,l0 24 
bti  fi  is  Widow  CJLA/RA 
5HACKEIF0RD  OCKERSON 


330. 973 

Fife 

fa.  6 


SENATE. 


f  Ex.  Doc.  53. 
\  Part  2. 


h 


vRESSj 

K^^oSion. 


LETTER 

FROM 

HE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

TRANSMITTING, 

i  additional  response  to  Senate  resolution  of  December  13,  1890,  report 
of  the  progress  of  irrigation  in  the  months  of  November  and  December. 


cbruary20,  1891.— Referred  to  the  Select  Committee  on  Irrigation  and  Reclama¬ 
tion  of  Arid  Lands  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  the  Secretary, 
Washington ,  D.  0.,  February  20,  1891. 

Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  as  a  part  of  the  inquiry 
lied  for  by  the  Senate,  the  report  of  progress  work  for  November  and 
ecember,  1890,  with  maps,  profiles,  and  appendix,  showing  surface 
evations  and  the  water  plane  beneath,  prepared  by  Edwin  S.  Nettle- 
•n,  chief  engineer  of  artesian  and  underflow  investigation,  and  by  W. 
T.  Follett,  the  assistant  engineer.  This  report  covers  a  large  section 
‘  the  central  division  of  the  Great  Plains,  embracing  considerable 
!  )rtions  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Colorado.  It  is  of  great  interest, 
j  id  the  accompanying  map  and  profiles  will  prove  of  service  in  illus- 
|  ating  the  existence  and  value,  for  irrigation  purposes,  of  waters 
ibibed  or  soaked  in  the  earth  from  regional^  rainfall,  held  in  valley 
|  ratum  or  sand  by  seepage  from  streams,  of  stored  below  the  alluvium 
j  om  mountain  drainage. 

I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully, 

Edwin  Willits, 

Acting  Secretary. 

I  The  President  of  the  Senate. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 
Irrigation,  Artesian  and  Underflow  Investigation, 

Denver ,  Colo .,  January  21,  1891. 

Sir:  I  herewith  transmit  my  progress  report  for  the  months  of  No- 
amber  and  December.  The  labor  of  working  out  the  field  notes  in 
mnection  with  the  survey  of  the  underground  waters  in  the  drainage 
illeys  of  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  has  required  much  more  time  than 
anticipated,  and  hence  the  delay  in  this  report. 

;  The  nature  of  the  investigation  of  the  so-called  “  underflow  ”  is  such 
U  to  require  an  extended  and  somewhat  connected  series  of  observa- 


2 


IRRIGATION. 


tions  in  order  to  settle  conclusively  the  theories  regarding  the  poss 
ities  of  utilizing  subterranean  waters  for  irrigation.  I  have  selecte 
the  valleys  of  the  two  principal  rivers  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas  forth 
purpose,  and  the  presentation  of  the  facts  is  better  accomplished,  I  b 
lieve,  by  the  graphic  method  of  plan  and  profile  than  could  be  done  b 
text  alone. 


The  profiles  which  I  submit  as  a  part  of  this  report  are  on  a  scale  tc 
large  for  publication.  I  found  it  was  not  practicable  to  make  workin 
profiles  that  would  not  have  to  be  reduced  for  the  printer.  These  pr< 
files  will  furnish  an  excellent  base  on  which  the  geologists  can  plac 
their  work  in  accurate  detail  in  the  final  closing  up  of  the  investigatioi 
As  we  have  not  made  copies  of  tbe  profiles,  I  would  suggest  that  tb 
originals  be  carefully  preserved  from  any  damage. 

Very  respectfully,  yours, 


Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk. 


E.  S.  Nettleton, 

Chief  Engineer. 


Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Department  of  Agriculture, 

ARTESIAN  AND  UNDERFLOW  INVESTIGATION, 

Denver ,  Colo.,  January  21,  1891. 

Sir  :  As  I  have  already  advised  you,  we  are  not  attempting  to  d 
any  field  work  in  the  Dakotas  this  winter,  leaving  the  northern  po: 
tion  of  the  territory  included  within  the  limits  of  our  investigatio 
until  next  spring.  Major  Coffin,  our  assistant  in  South  Dakota,  is  ii 
structed  to  do  all  he  can  in  the  mean  time  by  means  of  correspondent 
and  by  personal  inquiry  in  collecting  information  regarding  tb 
artesian-well  developments  made  since  our  inquiry  last  spring,  and  t 
collect  all  the  facts  he  can  regarding  the  locality  of  irrigable  stream* 
reservoir  sites,  and  tbe  probable  existence  of  subterranean  watei 
other  than  artesian  which  is  believed  to  be  practicable  to  utilize  fc 
irrigation  purposes.  He  reports  that  he  is  making  good  headway  i 
the  work  assigned  him.  The  artesian-well  investigation  in  Nebrask 
and  Kansas,  made  by  this  Department  last  spring,  leaves  so  little  t 
be  done  by  the  engineering  branch  that  we  have  not  pursued  thj 
inquiry  any  further  in  these  States.  Our  investigations  there  hav 
been  confined  to  the  study  of  the  extent  and  availability  of  the  unde: 
flow,  and  we  have  taken  the  valleys  of  the  Platte  in  Nebraska,  an 
Arkansas  in  Kansas,  as  the  two  best  opportunities  for  making  this  e2 
amiuation,  believing  whatever  conditions  we  find  there  would,  withou 
much  doubt,  exist  in  a  larger  portion  of  these  States. 

In  addition  to  the  examination  of  the  underflow  problem  in  these  tw 
valleys,  we  have  made  a  similar  investigation  of  the  question  along  tb 
line  of  the  one-hundredth  meridian  from  Norton  to  Dodge  City,  Kansa: 
The  plan  of  investigation  followed  for  the  purpose  ot  determining  tbj 
extent  and  availability  of  the  underflow  waters  for  irrigation  pm 
poses,  as  required  in  the  act  approved  September  30, 1890,  has  been  t 
connect  by  lines  of  levels  the  surface  of  the  subterranean  water,  when 
ever  it  could  be  found,  with  the  so-called  “sheet- water”  in  the  valley 
of  the  large  rivers.  The  surface  of  the  water  in  the  Platte  in  N< 
braska  and  the  Arkansas  in  Kansas  have  been  made  bases  of  tb 
levels,  all  of  which  have  been  reduced  to  sea-level  elevations. 


METHODS  OF  INVESTIGATION. 


3 


The  annexed  plan  and  profiles  show  in  detail  the  location  and  ele- 
ttion  of  the  surface  of  the  underground  water,  as  found  in  rivers, 
ells,  springs,  and  pools,  as  well  as  the  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the 
iuntry  along  the  line  surveyed,  which  is  represented  on  Appendix  1. 
hese  lines  were  carried  north  and  south,  or  about  at  right  angles  from 
e  river,  far  enough  in  each  direction  to  obtain  the  general  character- 
tics  and  relative  positions  of  the  water-bearing  stratum.  Eight  of 
ese  lines  were  surveyed — -four  on  the  Platte,  three  on  the  Arkansas, 
id  one  on  the  one  hundredth  meridian.  Appendices  Nos.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
and  8  show  the  exact  localities  of  the  lines  surveyed,  and  the  eleva- 
)ns  of  the  surface  of  the  country  above  sea  level,  which  are  projected 
profile  from  the  plan  beneath.  Appendix  No.  9  shows  only  the  pro- 
e  of  the  line  and  the  elevations  thereon,  as  were  established  by  ane- 
id  barometers,  corrected  to  true  elevations  whenever  it  could  be  done, 
it,  as  a  whole,  these  elevations  should  be  considered  only  approxi- 
ately  correct. 

In  connection  with  making  the  survey  to  obtain  the  relative  levels  of 
e  surface  of  the  country  and  of  the  water  bearing  strata  the  follow- 
g  inquiry  was  made  relative  to  the  wells  along  the  line  : 

Well  examined  by  W.  W.  Follett  on - line  in - . 

No.  of  well, - .  When  examined, - . 

Location, - . 

Owner, - .  Post-office?  - . 

When  put  down,  - .  Kind  of  well, - . 

Size, - .  Depth, - .  Depth  to  water, - .  Depth  of  water, - . 

Amount  of  water, - . 

Did  water  raise  when  struck?  - . 

Is  supply  changing  ?  - . 

Strata  passed  through, - . 

Quality  of  water, - .  How  raised.  - . 

Kind  of  mill, - .  Stroke, - . 

Cost  of  well,  - .  Cost  of  pump,  - .  Cost  of  mill,  - . 

C6st  of  repairs  to  mill, - . 

Maximum  amount  pumped  per  day, - .  Used  for - . 

Elevation  surface, - .  Elevation  water, - .  Elevation  bottom, - . 

Remarks, - . 

Copies  of  the  answers  to  the  above  inquiry  are  found  in  Appendix 

o.  10. 

The  line  shading  on  the  profiles  shows  the  water  line  in  the  wells  as 
ell  as  that  on  the  surface  at  the  time  the  survey  was  made.  In  some 
calities  the  water  is  several  feet  lower  than  usual,  the  cause  assigned 
fing  the  small  amount  of  rainfall  this  season. 

The  scale  adopted  shows  considerable  distortion,  making  the  appar- 
lt  slope  of  the  country  much  steeper  than  it  actually  is.  This  was 
lought  necessary,  however,  to  give  room  to  show  the  different  strata 
issed  through  in  the  wells  and  yet  to  keep  the  length  of  the  profile 
ithin  reasonable  limits. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  salient  facts  and  features  in  connec- 
on  with  the  wells  and  water-bearing  stratum  that  were  noticed  during 
le  investigation,  which  are  only  in  part  shown  on  the  several  profiles 
’  the  lines  surveyed  : 

BIG  SPRING  LINE. 

All  the  wells  on  this  line  are  positive-artesian  in  their  character,  ex¬ 
iting  those  on  the  south  end ;  which  are  negative ;  that  is,  they  rise 
i  the  bore,  but  do  not  flow  above.  The  water-bearing  stratum  is  gen- 
■ally  overlaid  by  clay  or  grit,  the  water  rising  in  some  instances  100 
et  above  where  it  is  struck,  and  in  all  of  them  it  rises  above  the  sheet- 


4 


IRRIGATION. 


water  in  the  river  valley.  The  water  in  well  No.  4  rises  80  feet  abov 
the  South  Platte  and  160  feet  above  the  North  Platte.  Well  No.  2. 
has  been  tested  for  quantity;  it  was  pumped  24  hours  at  the  rate  of  8« 
gallons  per  minute  without  exhausting  the  water. 

The  somewhat  celebrated  u  State  Corner”  spring  near  the  northeas 
corner  of  Colorado,  flows  about  5  gallons  per  minute;  it  is  180  fee 
aboye  the  river,  and  100  feet  above  the  highest  water  found  on  the  lin» 
and  does  not  seem  to  have  any  connection  with  any  other  water  in  tin 
vicinity,  except,  it  may  be,  with  the  artesian  vein." 

NORTH  PLATTE  LINE. 

The  sheet-water  extends  across  the  valley  of  the  Two  Rivers,  and  1 
very  near  the  surface.  About  23  miles  north  is  the  head  of  the  Soutl 
Loup ;  the  water  here  stands  in  pools,  and  about  on  the  same  leve 
with  the  water-bearing  stratum  to  the  south  of  it,  which  stratum  ii 
about  130  feet  above  the  Platte,  and  has  a  marked  regularity  of  positioi 
and  slope.  South  of  the  river  the  wells  are  quite  deep,  going  dowi 
practically  to  the  stieet- water  of  the  Platte  rivers,  and  has  a  regular  in 
clination  towards  the  south,  coming  to  the  surface  at  Medicine  Creekl 
a  branch  of  the  Republican  River. 

Medicine  Creek  is  a  plains  stream  originating  in  springs.  From  it! 
head  to  Wellfleet,  8  miles,  its  fall  is  about  16  feet  to  the  mile,  and  fron 
Wellfleet  South  for  about  5  miles,  it  falls  about  14  feet  to  the  mile.  A 
one  mile  from  its  source  (in  pools)  the  water  just  begins  to  run.  A 
Wellfleet  on  November  16,  it  was  carrying  18  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  l 
miles  below  on  same  date  it  was  carrying  30  to  35  cubic  feet  per  second 
The  water  comes  from  numerous  springs  along  both  banks  of  the  stream 
it  apparently  making  a  break  in  the  water-bearing  stratum.  From  th< 
distance  and  fall  of  the  stream  it  is  possible  that  this  is  the  same  stra 
turn  as  supplies  the  wells  at  Venango.  The  water-bearing  material  if 
hard  fine  sand  (loess),  above  Wellfleet,  changing  to  gravel  and  to  gril 
below.  The  flow  of  the  stream  is  said  to  be  nearly  constant,  flowing 
more  in  the  fall  than  any  other  time. 

Medicine  Creek  is  a  type  of  several  tributaries  of  the  Republicar 
River,  coming  from  the  north  and  west,  including  Red  Willow  Creek 
Stinking  Creek,  Frenchman  or  Whiteman’s  Fork,  and  the  two  headf 
of  the  Republican.  These  streams  all  arise  from  springs  in  water 
bearing  strata  apparently  continuous,  and  show  quite  a  flow  near  then 
heads.  The  tributaries  from  the  south  show  a  much  smaller  quantity  o:; 
water  than  those  from  the  north  and  west,  although  they  are  long  and, 
drain  a  large  territory. 

A  comparison  of  sea-level  elevations  show  that  it  is  possible  for  this 
water-bearing  stratum  to  be  continuous,  and  to  lie  at  an  elevation  equal 
to  or  below  that  of  the  sands  of  the  Platte  River.  By  reference  to  Ap 
pendix  No.  1  it  will  be  seen  that  many  springs  cluster  around  the  heads 
of  these  streams.  The  springs  there  shown  were  located  by  the  Arte 
sian  Wells  Investigation  of  the  spring  of  1890. 

LEXINGTON  LINE. 

At  Lexington  the  river  valley  proper  extends  about  10  miles  north 
of  this  place  ;  the  water  line  gradually  raises  in  that  direction  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  From  the  north  side  of  this  valley  to  the  South 
Loup,  22  miles  further  north,  the  same  general  characteristics  of  the 
water-bearing  stratum  exist  as  were  found  on  the  North  Platte  line. 


LINES  OF  INVESTIGATION. 


5 


ortk  of  these  rivers.  The  South  Loup  has  evidently  been  cut  70  or  80 
Lit  into  or  through  this  water-bearing  stratum.  Springs  are  abund- 
nt  along  the  south  side  of  the  Loup,  about  80  feet  above  it,  which  are 
jindoubtedly  the  out-cropping  of  the  uppermost  water-bearing  stratum. 
u  well  very  close  to  !No.  63  was  put  down  to  a  depth  of  350  feet,  or  100 
set  below  "the  Platte  River,  and  found  no  water  below  240  feet.  South 
If  the  Platte  to  the  Republican  the  regularity  of  the  water-bearing 
nraturn  is  quite  marked  and  coincides  very  nearly  with  that  on  the 
j  orth  Platte  line,  except  the  slope  to  the  south  is  much  greater,  it  be- 
ig  10  feet  per  mile  toward  the  Republican  River  or  about  twice  as 
reat  as  the  slope  of  the  Platte  River. 

GRAND  ISLAND  LINE. 

From  the  Platte  north  to  the  Loup,  is  in ’the  delta  of  these  two  rivers, 
le  Loup  being  100  feet  lower  than  the  Platte  and  the  general  surface 
fthe  ground  slopes  towards  the  Loup,  with  the  exception  of  a  line  of 
rifted  sand  hills  ou  the  south  side  of  the  Loup  V alley.  All  of  the  wells 
n  this  line  are  shallow,  except  near  the  sand  hills, and  afford  large  quan- 
ties  of  water  for  stock  purposes,  some  furnishing  as  high  as  3,200  gal- 
ms  per  day,  which  is  pumped  by  windmills.  South  from  the  Platte 
)  the  Little  Blue  there  is  a  great  irregularity  in  the  position  of  the 
ater-bearing  stratum,  but  the  general  slope  is  to  the  south,  as  found 
i  the  other  lines.  From  Little  Blue  to  the  Republican  there  is  no  well 
etined  water-bearing  stratum.  The  water  line  here  seems  to  conform 
tore  to  the  surface  than  on  the  other  lines. 

GREAT  BEND  LINE. 

From  Hoisington  north  there  is  no  well-defined  water-bearing  stratum, 
he  wells  on  this  part  of  the  line  have  a  weak  vein  of  water  found  in 
ay,  overlying  blue  shale  rock.  Well  Xo.  144  was  driven  through  the 
due  shale  180  feet  thick  into  a  thin  stratum  of  sand  and  gravel.  The 
j  ater  is  quite  salty  and  artesian  in  its  character,  rising  70  feet  above 
here  it  is  struck.  Well  27o.  138  is  16  feet  in  diameter,  and  furnishes 
1 3,000  gallons  in  24  hours  for  engine  use. 

!  South  from  Great  Bend  to  the  south  end  of  the  line  is  a  flat,  sandy 
iiuntry,  underlaid  by  alternating  layers  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay.  In 
early  ail  of  the  sand  and  gravel  strata  water  is  found.  Well  ISo.  129 
as  sunk  40  feet  below  the  upper  water  stratum  into  gravel;  the  water 
lised  to  a  level  with  the  top-water. 

DODGE  CITY  LINE. 

From  Dodge  City  north  there  is  no  well-defined  water-bearing  stratum, 
he  country  is  underlaid  with  blue  shale  with  an  irregular  surface,  and 
ater  in  limited  quantities  is  found  at  the  top  of  the  shale  in  sand  or 
mdy  clay.  South  from  Dodge  City  the  water-bearing  stratum  has  a 
lore  uniform  position,  being  very  nearly  on  the  same  level  with  the 
.rkansas  River.  The  south  end  of  this  line  terminates  in  the  artesian 
asin  in  Meade  County.  Here  are  between  85  and  100  wells,  flowing 
i)  an  average  of  15  gallons  per  minute.  The  depths  vary  from  57  to 
20  feet.  The  elevation  of  the  water-bearing  stratum  is  very  unequal 
i  this  basin,  accounted  for  as  shown  m  sketch  below.  The  water  is 
)ft,  and  the  flow  is  not  decreased  by  a  multiplicity  of  wells. 


6 


IRRIGATION 


WELL 


WELL 


WELL 


WELL 


Plate  I. — Specimen  section  of  artesian  strata 


.  ,  ...  _■ 


LINES  OF  INVESTIGATION. 


7 


GARDEN  CITY  LINE. 

The  water-bearing  stratum  along  the  entire  length  of  this  line  has  a 
markable  uniformity  of  position  and  slope,  and  comes  nearer  being  a 
ntinued  sheet  of  underground  water  than  has  yet  been  discovered, 
le  south  end  of  the  North  Platte  line  shows  a  similar  condition  of  the 
ater  line,  but  its  continuity  is  not  preserved.  By  referring  to  the  ed¬ 
itions  of  the  two  lines,  it  will  be  observed  that  there  is  about  2 TO  feet 
fference  between  the  south  end  of  the  North  Platte  line  and  the  north 
ad  of  the  Garden  City  line,  the  former  being  the  lowest,  which  shows 
at  there  must  be  a  "break  in  the  stratum  somewhere  in  the  country 
tervening. 

I  The  sheet-water,  as  shown  on  the  Garden  City  line,  conforms  quite 
to  the  theories  of  the  people  in  that  vicinity  regarding  its  extent, 
it  instead  of  the  water-bearing  stratum  receiving  its  supply  from  the 
rer,  as  heretofore  supposed,  we  find  the  facts  do  not  justify  this  theory, 
ie  wells  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  are  comparatively  quite  shallow, 
id  have  an  abundant  supply  of  water  which  undoubtedly  comes  from 
e  west.  It  will  be  observed  by  an  examination  of  the  map  of  Kan- 
,s  that  the  drainage  water  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  counties  of 
inney,  Scott,  Wichita,  and  Greeley,  flows  to  the  east  towards  this  line 
id  sinks  in  a  flat  country  in  Scott  and  Finney  counties. 

Near  Scott  City  there  is  a  depression  in  the  country  into  which  a 
ream  discharges  itself,  whose  head  is  in  Colorado.  During  wet  sea¬ 
ms  considerable  water  stands  in  this  depression  for  a  short  time,  but 
uks  rapidly  into  the  ground,  and  this  water,  without  question,  lurn- 
hes  the  subterranean  water  shown  on  the  north  end  of  this  profile. 

!  does  not  come  from  the  Arkansas  Biver,  as  the  slope  is  in  the  wrong 
rection,  it  being  about  2|  feet  per  mile  towards  the  river.  It  is  more 
j  ’obable  that  the  underflow  of  the  river  near  Garden  City  is  reen- 
rced  from  the  underground  waters  coming  to  it  from  the  northwest. 
Nearly  all  the  wells  on  this  line  are  reported  as  inexhaustible,  as  far 
i  they  have  been  tested  by  ordinary  pumping  by  hand,  or  by  wind  mills, 
few  instances  were  observed  where  4  to  7  acres  are  irrigated  in  Gar¬ 
in  City  by  water  pumped  from  these  shallow  wells  into  reservoirs  by 
ind  power.  One  of  these  wells  (well  177)  furnishes  100,000  gallons 
ir  day. 

THE  HUNDREDTH  MERIDIAN  LINE. 

This  line  was  surveyed  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  continuous  ex- 
nination  of  the  water-bearing  strata  from  the  Platte  to  the  Arkansas 
iver.  The  line  does  not  quite  connect  with  the  Lexington  line,  and  is 
short  distance  to  the  west  of  it.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  profile,  there 
no  uniformity  of  position  of  the  water-bearing  stratum,  the  water 
ae  following  quite  closely  the  contour  of  the  surface  of  the  country, 
he  wells  along  this  line  generally  furnish  water  sufficient  for  domestic 
$e  and  for  stock  purposes ;  in  some  instances  400  or  500  head  are  sup- 
ied  from  a  single  well.  In  several  localities  water  was  not  found  at 
1  in  some  wells,  while  in  others  in  the  same  neighborhood  a  very  lim¬ 
ed  supply  was  found.  This  is  generally  the  case  where  no  sand  or 
*avel  was  penetrated,  and  where  the  grit  rock  was  absent.  The  lack 
5  surface  water  in  the  large  drainage  channels  like  the  Solomon,  Sa- 
ue,  Smoky  Hill,  and  Pawnee,  was  very  noticeable.  Many  of  the  trib- 
taries  of  these  streams,  with  very  much  smaller  drainage  areas  com- 
rred  with  those  of  the  main  streams,  were  carrying  more  water  than 
ly  single  one  of  the  above-named  rivers.  The  water  in  these  smaller 


8 


IRRIGATION. 


tributaries  is  supplied  by  springs  which  are  generally  found  on  th 
north  side  of  the  creek  valleys,  and  issuing  at  the  lower  base  of  th 
grit  when  it  was  underlaid  by  an  impervious  rock. 

In  the  immediate  valleys  of  some  of  the  creeks  and  so-called  lar^f 
rivers  are  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel  which  undoubtedly  carry  mSr 
or  less  water ;  but  the  indications  are  that  no  great  amount  of  water  fo 
irrigation  can  be  obtained  in  these,  especiallv  when  long  intervals  occu 
when  these  water-holding  sands  are  not  reinforced  by  a  surface  flow 

Ihis  profile  and  some  of  the  others  show  that  the  Platte  and  Arkan 
sas  Kivers  are  higher  than  some  of  the  drainage  channels  that  lie  b€ 
tween  these  rivers.  Deep  borings  in  the  immediate  valleys  of  both  th 
i  latte  and  Arkansas  are  reported  to  have  been  made  without  reachin: 
bed  rock,  passing  through  sand  and  gravel  the  whole  distance.  Thi 
would  indicate  that  these  rivers  have  been  gradually  raised  bv  the  fill! 
mg  up  of  their  deeply  eroded  canons  with  sand  and  gravel"  brough 
down  from  above,  until  their  surface  is,  at  the  present  time,  almost  oi 
a  level  with  their  rock-bound  sides.  The  plains  streams  lying  betweei 

rive^s  have  not  been  filled  up  to  the  same  extent :  hence  thei; 
difference  in  elevation. 


CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS. 

From  information  gathered  from  the  Weather  Service  records,  froir 
the  people  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  Dakotas,  and  from  those 
bet  ween  the  ninety-seventh  meridian  and  one  hundred  and  first  in  western 
-Nebraska  and  Kansas,  it  appears  that  there  is  usually  rainfall  sutfi 
cient  in  the  whole  year,  if  it  were  properly  distributed  throughout  the 
cropping  season,  to  make  agriculture  quite  certain  without  the  aid  ol 
irrigation.  During  the  last  of  June  and  through  Julv  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  slight  falling  off  of  the  amount  of  rainfall  which,  with  the 
hot  southerly  winds  which  frequently  occur  during  these  months,  have 
made  it  necessary  to  bridge  over  a  short  interval  by  substituting  irri- 
gation  wherever  it  is  possible.  It  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  people 
in  this  belt  of  country  that  the  hot  and  dry  winds  have  more  to  do  with 
the  shortage  and  loss  of  crops  this  last  season  than  the  lack  of  rain- 
tall.  Further  west  the  losses  of  crops  seem  to  be  more  due  to  the 
scanty  rainfall  throughout  the  whole  year. 

There  are  evidences  which  have  come  to  our  knowledge,  both  from 
statements  of  the  oldest  settlers  and  froip  observations  of  the  climatic 
conditions  that  must  have  existed  before  the  settlement  of  the  eountrv, 
which  lead  to  the  belief  that  there  has  been  a  recurrence  of  wet  and 
dry  periods  which  have  extended  over  the  country  under  consideration. 
We  have  not  been  able  to  fix  the.probable  return  of  these  periods,  but 
they  seem  to  follow  each  other  with  intervals  of  11  to  14  years.  That 
the  past  year  is  not  the  dryest  that  was  ever  known  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  in  some  of  the  small  lakes  on  the  plains  which  have  dried  up 
during  the  last  season  old  buffalo  trails  are  found  in  the  bottom  of  these 
now  dry  lakes,  leading  to  the  very  lowest  point  where  water  could  be 
obtained.  The  drying  up  of  other  lakes  this  year  shows  small  dead 
trees  and  brush  that  were  once  growing  in  what  has  been  a  lake  for  i 
nian \  years.  It  is  also  observed  that  the  prairie  grasses  found  in  the 
moie  humid  sections  of  the  Great  Plains  are  gradually  occupying  the 
country  to  the  west,  which  was  formerly  covered  by  gramma  "and  buf¬ 
falo  grasses.  Ihe  latter  named  grasses  seem  to  occupy  and  mark  the! 
country,  which  is  at  present  doubtful  to  occupy  for  agricultural  pur¬ 
poses  without  the  substitution  oi  irrigation.^  On  our  recent  trip  along 


IRRIGATION  PROBLEMS.  9 

he  hundredth  meridian  through  the  State  of  Kansas  we  found  the 
ramma  and  buffalo  grasses  occupying  nearly  the  whole  country,  with 
iere  and  there  little  patches  of  the  central  Kansas  grasses  growing. 
Ihese  have  come  within  the  last  few  years. 

,4While  the  observations  of  the  rain  gauge  do  not  show  any  increase 
if  rainfall  in  these  districts,  yet  it  is  the  experience  and  judgment  ot 
he  people  who  have  lived  in  the  country  for  some  time  that  the  rain 
loes  not  fall  in  such  torrents  as  formerly;  also  that  dews  on  the  grass 
q  the  morning  can  be  seen  more  frequently  than  10  or  15  yeais  ago. 
'few  springs  of  water  are  showing  in  many  places,  and  some  of  the  old 
>nes  are  increasing  in  their  volume;  in  fact,  there  are  many  signs  which 
ndicate  that  the  climate  is  undergoing  a  gradual  change,  and  that  the 
;ountry  is  being  better  fitted  for  the  occupation  of, man;  but  the  great 
irawback  is  the  liability  of  a  return  of  the  cycles  of  dry  seasons,  when 
i ,  few  weeks  during  the  cropping  season  must  be  bridged  over  by  irri¬ 
gation,  or  be  followed  by  a  failure  of  crops  more  or  less  disastrous. 

!  Judging  from  the  past  history  of  the  western  movement  of  the  limit 
vhere  agriculture  can  be  safely  carried  on,  on  the  great  western  plains 
n  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  we  can  safely  anticipate  that  with  the  occu- 
lation  and  tillage  of  the  country  along  its  front  the  line  will  slowly 
tdvance,  but  slower  as  it  moves  westward  to  higher  altitudes  and 
;oward  a  country  that  will  always  require  irrigation. 

IRRIGATION  PROBLEMS  WITHIN  NEBRASKA  AND  KANSAS. 

The  Platte  River  traverses  the  entire  length  of  Nebraska,  and  the 
Arkansas  enters  Kansas  near  the  southwest  corner  of  the  State  and 
passes  out  of  it  into  the  Indian  Territory  at  the  ninety-seventh  merid- 
an,  or  the  eastern  limit  of  this  investigation.  These  rivers  have  their 
j  source  in  Colorado  and  Wyoming,  where  they  receive  nearly  the  whole  of 
their  water  supply.  The  appropriation  of  the  waters  of  the  South  I  latte 
md  the  Arkansas  has  been  already  made  by  ditches  and  canals  in 
Colorado,  under  the  constitution  and  laws  of  that  State,  to  an  extent 
that  no  water  is  left  for  either  Kansas  or  Nebraska,  except  possibly  a 
little  during  the  short  period  of  the  annual  and  storm-water  floods.  In 
both  Nebraska  and  Kansas  irrigation  canals  have  been  constructed 
taking  water  out  of  these  rivers  which  antedate  many  of  the  huge 
canals  in  Colorado,  hence  the  possibility  of  a  conflict  of  rights  of  an 
interstate  character ;  and  until  these  rights  are  adjudicated  the  surplus 
waters  of  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers  can  hardly  be  depended  on 
for  irrigation  purposes. 

The  various  methods  of  irrigation  available  for  this  country  are  about 
as  follows : 

(1)  The  use  of  subterranean  water  obtained  by  open  sub-flow  ditches. 

(2)  The  use  of  subterranean  waters  raised  a  few  feet  by  mechanical  means. 

(3)  The  use  of  subterranean  waters  raised  from  the  ordinary  farm  wells  by  wind- 

mills.  .  „  ,  .  . 

(4)  The  use  of  the  small  perennial  flow  of  the  plains  streams. 

(5)  The  storage  and  immediate  use  of  storm  waters. 

(6)  The  use  of  the  flow  of  artesian  wells. 

1.  Fortunately  for  the  benefit  and  protection  of  the  irrigation  devel¬ 
opment  in  the  valleys  of  these  rivers  in  western  Nebraska  and  Kansas, 
there  is  a  deposit  of  sand  and  gravel  of  considerable  width  and  of 
unknown  depth  that  is  charged  with  water;  just  how  much  is  available 
and  can  be  utilized  for  irrigation  purposes  remains  to  be  found  out. 
The  only  practical  test  of  the  quantity  that  can  be  taken  out  by  a  sin¬ 
gle  sub  canal  has  been  made  at  Dodge  City  and  Hartlaud.  A  similar 


10 


IRRIGATION. 


attempt  is  being  made  on  the  Platte  River  near  Ogallala  Neb] 

SntTmpTateT  °f  ^  Same  khld  in  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  Valleys  ar 

The  amount  of  water  obtained  by  the  two  sub-canals  at  Dodge  Cit 
and  Hart  land  is  15  cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  mile  in  length  of  th 
excavation  that  is  made,  6  feet  below  the  water  line.  It  is  found  tha. 
the  width  of  the  canal  has  but  little  effect  on  the  amount  of  water  nei 

colating  into  it;  the  depth  and  length  are  the  controlling  factors,  othe 
conditions  being  equal.  &  ’ 

These  sub-canals  are  simply  drainage  channels  extended  up  anc 
alongside  of  the  river  beds  until  the  bottom  of  the  channel  has  reachec 
about  6  feet  below  the  original  water  line,  then  the  channel  is  givei 
t  e  same  grade  as  tjie  rizer  and  extended  as  far  upstream  as  circum 
stances  will  admit,  or  until  the  desired  amount  of  water  is  obtained 
W  hen  the  sub-canal  is  an  excavated  channel  made  by  scraping  out  the 
material  in  the  ordinary  way,  6  feet  deep  below  the  water  line  seems  to  be 
about  the  proper  depth.  I  have  made  some  calculations  regarding  the 
proportional  increase  of  the  inflow  due  to  deeper  cut  channels,  and  find 
it  is  nearly  as  the  square  of  the  depth.  This  rule  is  verified  bv  ar 
instance  on  the  South  Platte,  25  miles  southwest  from  Denver,  where 
a  company  has  put  in  a  sub-conduit  near  the  bed  of  the  river  which  h 
!8  feet  below  the ;  water  line.  In  700  feet  of  this  sub-conduit  there  is 
obtained  J, 000,000  gallons  each  24  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  153  cubic  fee 
per  second  for  a  mile  of  such  conduit.  This  shows  about  ten  times  tin 
quantity  obtained  from  a  sub-channel  6  feet  deep,  which,  if  the  above  rul< 
was  applied,  would  be  only  nine  times  as  great,  or  135  cubic  feet. 

2.  there  are  many  places  where  large  amounts  of  water  exist  at  a 
depth  too  great  to  be  reached  by  sub-canals,  but  which  can  be  brought 
to  the  surface  if  lifted  a  few  feet  by  mechanical  means.  Carefulh 
made  calculations  show  that  it  is  practicable  to  raise  water  for  genera] 
irrigation  a  few  feet  by  steam  pumps  or  animal  power.  It  can  be  put 
on  the  land  at  a  cost  which  will  exceed  but  little  if  any  the  cost  oi 
water  obtained  from  the  more  expensive  irrigation  canalsl  One  oTeat 
drawback  to  the  early  adoption  of  this  method  is  the  first  cost  of  the 
plant,  but  as  the  country  grows  older  and  richer  a  considerable  amount 
of  land  will  be  irrigated  in  this  way. 

3.  For  gardening  and  horticultural  purposes  considerable  irrigation 
can  be  done  by  water  pumped  by  wind  power  from  wells  too  deep  or 
with  too  small  a  water  supply  to  successfully  pump  by  steam.  Water 
obtained  in  this  way  must  be  pumped  into  a  reservoir  and  used  in  large 
quantities.  In  this  way  pumping  can  go  on  continuously  whenever  the 
wind  is  blowing  and  the  work  of  irrigation  can  be  done  at  the  times 
when  the  crops  are  in  need  of  it  The  area  that  can  be  covered  bv  a 
single  well  is  small,  but  many  wells  can  be  put  down  and  utilized. 

\  ater  thus  obtained  can  be  used  only  for  gardening,  as  it  is  far  too 
costly  to  be  used  for  general  farming.  The  amount  of  water  from  each 
^  ell  is  small,  but  the  low  first  cost  of  such  a  plant  and  the  extremely 
small  cost  of  maintenance  (see  Appendix  10)  brings  it  within  the  reach 
of  nearly  all  the  settlers. 

\  H108?  s?uaJ1  plains  streams  having  a  constant  flow,  careful 

fctuay  ot  the  drainage  will  show  places  where  small  irrigation  ditches 
can  be  taken  out  which  will  use  the  available-water  supply  in  a  very 
advantageous  way.  There  are  large  numbers  of  such  opportunities  in 
c he  drainage  of  the  Republican  River  aud  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
e  semi-arid  country  in  Kansas  aud  Nebraska.  The  water  of  streams 
haAing  a  continuous  small  flow  can,  by  storing  it  in  their  channels,  be 

7  * 


A  BEGINNING  MADE. 


11 


tilizecl  on  tlieir  valleys  lower  down  by  common  irrigation  methods, 
'his  is  probably  the  cheapest  and  most  feasible  method  of  ii ligation 
ow  available  for  the  people  of  this  country,  and  the  one  they  should 
rsl  adont 

5.  In  the  western  portion  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  it  does  not  seem 
iracticable  to  depend  on  the  storage  of  storm  waters,  both  on  account 
f  the  lack  of  water  to  store  and  the  scarcity  of  good  storage  places, 
n  the  eastern  part  of  the  semi-arid  country  there  are  many  good  op- 
lirtunities  for  storing  the  waters  ot  the  intermittent  and  flood  carry - 
ng  streams,  and  the  water  can  be  utilized  for  flooding  the  adjoining 
ands.  It  is  not  practicable  to  hold  this  water  for  any  great  length  ot 
ime,  as  it  would  be  quickly  lost  by  evaporation  and  percolation,  but  it 
an  be  used  advantageously  at  any  time  on  these  heavy  prairie  soils 

nth  impervious  clay  subsoil.  .  .  ,  . 

;  6.  A  great  deal  of  land  is  now  irrigated  by  artesian  wells  already  in 

ixistence,  but  the  area  could  be  largely  extended  by  the  use  of  reser¬ 
voirs  to  hold  their  constant  flow. 

A  BEGINNING  MADE. 

Although  there  is  so  large  a  portion  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  west  of 
he  ninety-seventh  meridian  that  is  not  susceptible  of  irrigation  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  lack  of  water,  yet  there  are  thousands  of  opportunities 
lere  and  there  scattered  all  over  the  country  outside  of  the  immediate 
leighborhood  of  the  Platte,  Republican,  and  Arkansas  Rivers,  for  irri¬ 
gating  limited  areas.  Some  of  these  opportunities  are  already  being 
mproved,  and  farming  and  gardening  under  irrigation  in  these  places 
ras  proved  very  successful  and  remunerative.  We  have  seen  instances 
inhere,  by  a  very  little  expenditure  of  labor,  the  little  water  heretofore 
?unning  to  waste  has  been  turned  to  a  beneficial  use,  and  areas  ranging 
Tom  10  to  25  acres  each  have  been  made  to  yield  a  profit  of  from 
:o  $75  per  acre  for  the  last  two  seasons.  The  success  of  those  who  are 
•arming  by  irrigation  is  leading  others  who  have  the  proper  facilities 

;o  do  likewise.  .  .  . 

.  The  general  failure  of  crops  and  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  irriga¬ 
tion  for  raising  even  enough  for  the  subsistence  of  the  family,  and  the 
good  round  profits  made  during  the  last  season,  are  awakening  an  in¬ 
terest  in  the  irrigation  question.  Meetings  and  conventions  aie  being 
ield  in  several  of  the  western  counties  in  these  States  to  discuss  this 
question.  An  attempt  to  organize  for  securing  aid  from  the  county. 
State,  and  National  Governments  is  also  being  made.  On  account  ot 
the  conflicts  that  have  already  arisen  regarding  water  rights,  irrigation 
legislation  for  these  States  will  be  one  of  the  things  attempted  this 

winter.  ...... 

The  beginning  in  this  small  way,  and  the  agitation  of  the  irrigation 

question,  reminds  one  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  years  ago  in  Colorado 
when  it  then  was  a  question  with*  some  people  in  that  State  whether 
farming  by  irrigation  could  be  successfully  carried  on. 

Just  what  the  effect  of  the  periodical  recurrence  of  seasons  of  sufficient 
rainfall  will  have  on  the  irrigation  development  in  these  States  will 
largely  depend  upon  the  class  of  people  occupying  the  country.  In  the 
western  part  of  these  States  where  water  for  irrigation  can  be  had  with 
a  reasonable,  outlay  of  labor  and  money,  we  may  safelj  expect  ^ork 
will  be  pushed  with  a  degree  of  energy  commensurate  with  the  financial 
condition  of  the  people. "  The  difference  in  the  final  outcome  of  irriga¬ 
tion  development  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  and  that  in  Colorado,  wul 


12 


CONCLUSION. 


be  that  irrigation  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska  will  be  confined  to  discc 

nected  and  smaller  irrigation  districts,  and  a  more  general  utilization 

the  underground  waters,  and  doubtless  a  much,  smaller  percentage  1 

land  cultivated  by  aid  of  irrigation.  In  one  case  irrigation  is  an  absolu 

necessity,  in  the  other,  the  necessity  diminishes  as  the  line  of  humidr 

is  approached  from  the  west. 

\  • 


CONCLUSIONS. 


From  an  analysis  of  the  information  collected  with  reference  to  tl 
extent  and  availability  for  irrigation  of  the  underflow  waters  in  the  te 
ritory  examined  and  embraced  in  this  report,  and  also  with  referem 

to  other  questions  closely  allied  to  the  subject  we  arrive  at  the  fol^ 
mg: 

There  are  a  great  diversity  of  means  for  irrigation  of  small  areas,  a 
ot  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  to  irrigate  even  a  small  percentas 

ot  the  lands  it  is  necessary  to  artificially  moisten  to  tide  over  the  r- 
curnng  dry  seasons. 

History  and  observation  teach  that  the  necessity  for  irrigation  j 
growing  less,  and  that  the  line  separating  the  humid  from  the  semi-ari 
regions  is  moving  westward.  This  movement  is,  however,  growin 
slower  and  slower  with  each  degree  covered,  and  the  point  will  some 
where  be  reached  where  it  will  stop.  Here  will  be  the  battle  groun. 
between  the  courageous  immigrant  and  the  elements. 

Yet  the  country  is  not  by  any  means  without  a  hope  and  a  fair  ex 
pectation  ot  eventually  becoming  a  region  where  agricultural  and  pas 
toral  pursuits  properly  combined  can  be  carried  on  at  a  profit. 

Yours,  very  respectfully, 


Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington ,  D.  C. 


E.  S.  Nettleton, 

Chief  Engineer. 


INDEX. 


matic  conditions . 

kotas,  work  in . 

roduction  to  report . 

tter  of  the  Acting  Secretary  to  the  Senate . 

tter  of  Chief  Engineer  to  the  Secretary . 

aes  of  investigation  :* 

Big  Spring  Line . 

Artesian  wells  on . 

“  State  corner  ”  well . 

North  Platte  Line . 

Medicine  Creek . 

Two  Rivers  Valley  undersheet . 

Sea-level  comparison . 

Lexington  Line . 

Characteristics  of  South  Loup  on . 

Grand  Island  Line . 

Water-bearing  stratum . 

Great  Bend  Line . 

Irregularity  of  strata . 

Dodge  City  Line . 

Meade  County  artesian  basin . 

Garden  City  Line . 

Uniformity  of  water-sheet . — 

Difference  of  elevation  from  North  Platte  Line 

Source  of  uudersheet  supply . 

Singular  depression  near  Scott  City . 

Wells  inexhaustible . 

The  hundredth  meridian . 

Purpose  of  survey . 

Absence  of  grit  rock  and  underlying  gravel . . . 
High  level  of  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers  . 

ithods  of  irrigation  available . . . 

nature,  equalization  of,  observed . 

riodic  recurrence  of  wet  and  dry  season . 

esent  situation . 

oblems  of  irrigation  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas . 

.rveys,  general  lines  of . 

vo  Rivers  Valley  water-sheet .  ... 

iderflow  investigation . 


Page. 

& 

2 

2 

1 

1,2 


3 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 

7 

8 
9 
9 
8 

U 

9 

3 

4 
2 


*  For  detailed  information,  location  of  wells,  and  relative  elevations  of  water-bear- 
y  strata,  see  Appendices  Nos.  2  to  10. 


.if  fv 


13 


14 


INDEX. 


APPENDICES. 

■ 

Appendix  1 : 

Map  showing  location  of  Artesian  Wells  and  Waters 
Appendix 2 r  ’  “  ’ 

Plat  and  Profile  of  a^line  across  the  South  Platte  River  at  Bi<r  Sprint  Nebrask* 
from  the  North  Platte  River  to  a  point  near  the  head  of  F?en™fman R?ve, 
'  Appendi^  3'^ re  a^Ive  e^evati°n  of  the  Water-hearing  Strata.  -V 

Plat  -ami  Profile  of  a  line  across  the  Platte  River  at  North  Platte,  Nebraska  fron 

to  Medicine  Creek' showiD® -la‘- 

Appendix  4 : 

Piat  and  Profile  of  a  line  across  the  South  Platte  River  at  Lexington  Nebraska 

tio“omeTaterTafin7sttr°attae  RepubUcan  ^ver, showing  relative  eleva 
Appendix  5 : 

Piat  and  Profile  of  a  line  across  the  Platte  River  at  Grand  Island.  Nebraska  fron 

tbe  ’ 16  RePnb“Can  RiVCr’  “o- 

Appendix  6  : 

Piat  and  Profile  of  a  iine  across  the  Arkansas  River  at  Great  Bend,  Kansas  fro 

oftheyWatl  bIarin7straU.Ueat  Il'ka’  KanSaS>  8h°Wins  reIative  ek;ati 

Appendix  7  : 

Plat  aud  Profile  of  a  line  across  tbe  Arkansas  Kiver  at  Dod^e  City  from  Pan-n 

Strata  ^  Creek’  Sh°wing  relatiTe  eleTatioB  °f  the  Water-beari 

Appendix  8 : 

Plat  and  Profile  of  a  line  across  the  Arkansas  River  at  Garden  Citv  Kansas  froi 
in Strata ^  t0  L°C°'  Kausas’  showing  relative  elevation  of  the  Water-beai 
Appendix  9 : 

Pr°elevItinnI1nf0wtlie h?ndr.edtb 1  meridian,  from  Norton,  Kansas,  showing  relativ 
Appendix  lt/f  f  ^  ater*bearmS  Strata  as  determined  by  aneroid  barometer. 

Detailed  information  of  Wells  referred  to  on  Plats  and  Profiles  numbered  2  to  £ 


o 


A/?p>enc//x  /V?3 


r 


otnted  Stales  Department  of  Agriculture 

- -  PLATES PROFILE  - - 


,'flat'it  hivers  »t'i 


-  NEBRASKA  - 

Sho«,oft 

relative  elevation  of  it 


Me  ill  ciue  Cr 


'\&tek  Bearing  Strata 


€  S  JrzcttjzT*. 


I 

\ 


Afi-xnt/'A  /V®3 


> 


A pfen  c// x  A/9 


j 


>f ppentfir  -'V®  + 


Apper/c//  x 


/i  oo 


Af>/&  enc/S*  6 


t 


1 

1 

Os 

$ 

$ 

3 

* 

<*> 

V. 

cvj 

">  8 
& 

f? 

1^ 

ij 

In 

|ft 

L _ 

$ 

CN 

Oo 

& 

N 

[N 

§ 

* 

"©1 

v\& 

*5 

1 

1 

1 

cr 

a//X  A/ o  7 


~T- 


4- 


/4 ?<  /Y°  $ 


-22.00. 


-21 


2200- 


2200- 


oo 


/-fo 


i+S  Mite* 


<ED  IN 

10 

rise 

sk  ? 

Il 

O. 

Elevation. 

Appendix  No.  10.- DETAILED  ISFORHJ  TIOS  OF  WELLS  REFERRED  TO  OS  PROFILES  SOS.  2  TO  8. 

|  Well*  examined  by  W.  W.  Follett.J 


10 


On  31c  Spring  line  in  Nebraska : 

SW.J  SW  J  sec.  80.  T.  13  N.,  R.41  W . 

NW.j  sec.  18.  T.  13  N.. R.41  W . 

SW.  J  NW.  i  sec.  6,  T.  13  N.,  R  41  W . 

NW.J  sec.  18.  T.  14  N..  R.  41  W . 

SW.JSE.J  sec.  18,  T.  14  N..R.41  W . 

NW.JNE.J  sec. 20, T.  14  N..R.41  W. . 

NW.JNE.J  sec.  22,  T.  14  N..R41  W . 

SW.  J  SE.  J  sec.  28,  T.  14  N„  R.  41 W . 

SW  J  SE.  J  sec.  26,  T.  14  N  ,  R.  41  W . 

SE.  J  SE.  J  sec.  12,  T.  13  N.,  R.  41  W . 

SE.Jecc.6,  T.  11  N..R.41  W . 

SW  J  NW.  J  sec.  20.  T.  11  N.,  R.  41  W . 

NE.J  NB.Jsec. 30, T.ll  N-.R.41  W . 

NE  1  NE.  1  sec.  6,  T.  9N.,  R.  41  W . 

SW.JNW.  J  see.  8,  T.  0  N..  R.  41  W . 

SE.JNE,  J  scc.20,  T.  0N..R.  31  W  ...  . 

SW  J  sec.32,T.9N.,R  41  W.  .. . 

N  E.  J  seO.  13,  T.  8  N. ,  R.  42  W . . 

SE.  1  etc.  18,  T.18  N..R.42  W . 

I.  J,  NE.  J  sec.  26,  T.  6  N. ,  R.  42  W . 

<0.31,  T.  8  N.,  R.  41  W . 

•eC.  13.  T.  7  N..  R  42  W . 

r  of  sec.  7.T.0N..R  41  W . 

■lotto  line  id  Nebraska: 

V.  J,  sec.  15,  T.  9  N.,  R.  30  Vf .  24  No’ 

_  S.  J  sec.  13.  T.  0  N.,  R.  30  W . .  26  j  No’ 

K  sec.  10,  T.  0  N  .  K.  20  W  .  '20  No’ 

■  sec.  13, T. ON..  R. 30  W . 

,  15,  T.  0  N.,  R.30  W . 


When 

exam¬ 

ined. 


Nov.  12 
Nov.  12 

Nov.  12 
Nov.  12 
Nov.  12 
Nov.  12 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  13 

Nov.  14 
Nov.  14 


c  and  address  of  owner. 


G.  E.  Thompson,  Big  Spring,  Nrbr... . I 

W.  L.  Hacknev.  Big  8prine.  Nebr . I 

E.  A.  Pbelps,  Big  Spring,  Nebr  ...  . 

W.  W.  WatennaD,  Doy,  Nebr . 

George  Boris,  Day,  Nebr . . . 

Henry  Moos,  Day,  Nebr . 


Jane,  1888 . . do . 


Henry  Bortz,  Dsy,  Nebr . 

A.  Haney,  Big  8prlng,  Nebr....... 

Cbas.  Sautter.  Big  Spring,  Nebr. .. 
Clias.  Sbrandt,  Brule,  Nebr . 

Robt.  Bigbnm,  Big  Spring,  Nebr . . 


Cbas.  Harrison,  Venango,  Nebr . ..j 

E.  Armstrong,  Venango,  Nebr . i, 

j 


P.  von  Bnskirk,  VcDango,  Nebr  . 
H.  J.  Scott,  Venango,  Nebr . 


Nov.,  1887.... 
Foil,  1880... 

Spring,  1800. 
Mar.,  1890.. 
Sept.,  1888.. 
Nov.,  1887.. 

Aog„  1880.. 

July,  1889.. 

Foil,  1887  ... 

Nov.,  1888  .. 
June,  1800  .. 


To,aL  water,  water. 


_ do  .  4  in.  diam. 

...do .  6  in.  diam. 


.  v  [  1887 . . 

I).  R.  Bivins,  Vcnnngo,  Nebr . ...'  Nov., 

1 1 


Nov.  14  John  Meyer,  VeDaDgo,  Nebr 


Nov.  14 
Nov,  14 
Nov.  14 


SW.J  sec.  31,  T.  10  N.,  R.  20  W . 

SE,  J  SE.  J  seo.  24,  T.  10N..R.80  W  .. 

NE.  J  SE.  J  aec.  24.  T.  10  N  ,  R.  30  W 
NE  J  SE.  J  sec.  12,  T.  10  N.,  R.  30  W  . 


SE.  J  NE.  J  » 
NW*  J  NE.  J 


see. 23, T.ll  N..R.30  W . 


27  Nov.  16 

28  i  Nov.  17 


Muttblaa  Boreh,  Venango,  Nebr. . . . 


A.  J.  McElvaiu,  Lniunr,  Nebr . U. 

D.  L.  Adams,  Lamar,  Nebr . i 

A.  S.  Allen,  Lamar.  Nebr . 

Burlington  and  Missouri  River  Kullronl , 
Venango,  Nebr. 

Town  of  Wellfleot.  Welltlcet.  Nebr . . 


J.  F.  Welburn,  Welincet,  Nobr 
John  R.  Davis,  Welltlcet,  Nebr . 


Summer,  1888 
Fall,  1867  .... 
Summer,  1867 


29  Nov.  17  ! 

30  Nov.  18  ' 


r 


C.  C.  Hawkins,  Wellflcet,  Nebr. 

A.  S.  Flctober,  Bucbaunii,  Nebr . 


NE.  J  sec.  26,  T.  11  N-.  R.  30  W . . 
SW.J  sec.  24,  T.  12  N.,  R.  30  W.. 


NW.  J  sec.  24.  T.  12  N..R.30  W  .. 
SW.  J  SE.  J  see.  22,  T.  12  N„  R.  30 


Nov.  18  Jonnthon  Welch,  Bncbannu,  Nebr  . . 

Nov.  18  G.  A.  Scbrecocgost,  Elizabeth,  Nebr . 


NE.  J  NE.  J  sec.8,T.12N.,R30W.... 
SW.  J  NW.  J  aec. 4, T.  12 N.,  R.30  W... 
NE.  J  NW.  J  sec.  34,  T.  13  N„  R.30  W.. 


Nov.  18 
Nov.  18 

Nov.  18 
Nov.  19 


39  Nov.  10 

40  ;  Nov.  19 

41  Nov.  19 


A.  B.  Orr,  Elizabeth,  Nebr . 

W.  T.  Bowen,  Watts,  Nebr . . 

George  M.  Bobbelt,  Watts.  Nebr.  , 
E.  R.  Sellers,  Watts,  Nobr  . 


NW  J  sec.22,  T.  IS  N.,  R.30  W .  42  Nov.  10 

NE.  J  sec.  2,  T.  14  N.,  R.  30  W .  43  Nov.  20 


NW.  J  sec.  30.  T.  15  N  ,  R  29  W . 

NW.  J  SW  J  sec.  4,  T.  15  N  ,  R.  29  W . 


N W.  J  NE.  J  sec.  34,  T.  16  N„  R.  29  W .  46  Nov.  20 

SE.  J  sec.  22.  T.  16  N.,  R.  29  W .  47  Nov.  20 

SW.  J  NW.  J  sec  14.  T.  10  N-,  R  29  W .  48  Nov.  20 


BE.  J  aec.  10,  T  16  N  ,  R.  29  V 


FraDds  Montague,  North  Platte,  Nebr _ 

J.R.  Chopin,  North  Platte,  Nebr . ! 

John  Klnkade,  North  Platte,  Nebr . 

L.Tboeleoke,  North  Platte,  Nebr. . 


Casper  Sivite,  North  Platte,  Neiu  ! 

Joseph  Ross,  Myrtle,  Nebr . 

W.  F.  Glvins.  Myrtle,  Nebr . . 

David  Brouk,  Myrtle,  Nebr . . 


49  Nov.  20  B.  R.  Gibbenx,  Myrtle,  Nebr  . . 


NE.  J  sec.  19,  T.  16  N.,  R. 29  W  ... 
NW  J  sec.  25.  T.  17  N„  R  .  29  W  . 


50  Not.  21 

51  Nov.  21 


W.  H.  Noll,  Myrtle,  Nebr  . . 
Matt  McGne.  Doip,  Nebr  ... 


Deo.,  1688.... 
July,  1889.... 

Aug.,  1888  ... 
June,  1889  ... 


Mar.,  1690.. 
Apr,,  1883.. 


. .  do . 

...do . 

...do . 

...do  . 


4  In. diam. . 
6  in. diam. .. 
|  2  In.  diam . . 
—  do . 


Drilled  —  i  —  do  . 


Bored . L.  do . j 


Drilled .  2  in.  diam. . 


Drilled _ 1  2  in.  diam. 

Bored, wood  10  In.  diam. 
casing. 


Amount  of  water. 


Strata  passed  through. 


Quality.  How  raised. 


Kind  of  mill.  Stroke. 


Coat. 

Pomp.  3 


(,cf  W  ater.  ( Bottom 


3  by  3  feet..  116 


. . .  do . do . 

Drilled .  5  Iu.  diam  . . 


Bored .  8  in.  diam  . 

Dug . I  3  by  3  feet. 

...do . ] _ do . 

....do . |.  ...do . . 

- do . | _ do . 


...do . . do . 

...  do . |  33  by  33  in. 

3  by  3  feet 
..do . | - do . 


■-£ :::::::  W/t, 


J  feet 


Bored . 

j  Doe . 


Summer,  1888 . 
Dec.,  1887 . 


....do . 

...  do  . 


2  in.  diam  . . 
8  by  3  feet . 


...do . 


May,  1665... 
Jan.,  1888.... 
Nov.,  1690.... 
About  1682  . . 


Feb.,  1687  . . 
May,  1689.. 
Fall  of  1665 


Mar.,  1686 
i  Nov.,  1689 


I - do . . . do . 

. do . I  3J  by  SJfeet 

.  Tubular _ i  2  in.  diam  . . . 

.  Dug . '  6  by  6  feet  . 

..  Bored,  wood  10  in.  diam.. 
I  C^8lD8-  I  a 

■ - do . j  12  in.  diam  . 


--.•do . — do . 

..  ....do . |  10  in.  diam  . 

-  — do . |  12  in.  diam  . 

.  ...do . .do . 

•  ■I.—  do . | — do . . 

.  ,  Hydraulic  . .  2  in.  diam 


Small,  can  lower  water  25  | . 

feet  in  pumping  109  gal-  i 
Ions. 

Can  not  pump  dry .  : . 

Can  not  pump  dry  uor  . 

!tb  b  ’  - 


13  feet  gravel  and  sand,  then  into  clay  marl,  probablv  shale,  all  the 
|  way  down.  No  vein  of  water,  but  'seepage  from  the  clay  mail. 


lower  with  bucket. 


Can  not  lower  .. 


1  Yes;  30  feet  ....  Increasing. 


Cannot  lower  with  pump  ...  Yes-,  40 feet ... 
Can  not  pump  down . j  Yes;  80  feet ...» 

. .  .do . t  Yes, 50  feet .... 

Can  not  pump  dry . |  No . 

Can  not  lower . -I  Yes;  8  or9feet. 

Can  not  pump  dry . !  Yes .  72  feet . . . 

Can  not  pomp  down .  Yea;  40  feet . . . 


40  Can  not  pomp  down . . 


9  About  4  barrels  an  hour, 


Can  not  lower  with  backet. 


Iu  watering  Block  can  bail 
down  1  foot ;  then  can  not  , 
lower 

Small;  runs  about  2  barrels 
per  hour. 


Yes;  40  feet  .. 
Yes ;  30  feet . . 


No . 

Yes;  2  feet . 


Not  much . 

Yes  -,  4  feet . 

No . 


Con  not  exhaust .  Yeej  4 


Can  not  lower  . . 


Yea :  3  feil 
Yes ;  6  feqt 


In  good  steady  wind  mill 
can  lower  4  feet,  but  no 
more. 

Can  not  lower  with  mill ... 


Can  not  pomp  ont .  Can  not  say... 

In  hard  wind  mill  will  ex-  No., 
baust  in  3  boors. 

Con  not  pump  dry . 


No . . 


No . 

No . 

No""""" 
No . 

No . 

no"::::::: 
No... . 


Some  quicksand;  clay  above  water-bearing  stratum . 

|  15  feet  earth,  8  feet  gravel,  2  or  3  leet  grit  then  gravel  and  sand 

-  down  to  170  feet;  some  cemented  gravel;  water  in  fine  hard 
I  gravel,  probably  cemented. 

60  feet  clay,  14  feet  soft  magnesia  rock  (griti,  20  feet  grave-land 
sand, 8  feet  soft  magnesia  rock  (grit)  190  feet  sand  and  gravel, 
with  etreaks  of  clay.  25  or  80  feet  quicksand,  2  or  3  feet  white 
rock,  then  2  or  3  feet  fine  gravel  with  water. 

60  feet  soil  and  clay,  thi-n  sand  and  gravel  with  a  little  day.  Water 
in  gravel  and  sand;  a  little  rock  above  water. 

Hard  material  just  on  top  of  water.  There  were  several  small  veins  I 
of  water  above  the  vefo  finally  tapped,  but  not  enough  to  do  any 
I  good. 

60  feet  earth  and  clay;  then  gravel.  At  about  200  feet  2  feet  fire¬ 
clay;  then  water  in  gravel. 

60  feet  earth  and  clay ;  2  or  3  feet  of  lock  just  above  water ;  water 
in  coarse  gravel, 

135  feet  soil  and  clay  with  a  little  gravel ;  then  65  feet  blue  clav  ; 

then  60  feet  gravel;  4  or  5  feet  white  clay  ;  tben  water  in  gravel. 
10  or  12  feet  day ;  12  feet  gravel,  20  feet  clay,  20  feet  gravel,  10  feet 
grit,  25  sond  nnd  dirt.  12  feet  gravel,  30  feet  clav,  tben  gravel  and 
I  clay  down  to  213  feet :  tben  6  feet  hard  clay,  6  feet  soft  rock  ;  then 
gravel,  with  some  clay  and  water. 

[  05  feet  sand,  gravel,  nnd  earth,  30  to  40  feet  red  clay,  nosand.no 
rock  ;  8  to  10  feet  gravel.  15  feet  red  clav  ;  tben  sand,  at  250  feet 
i  strike  white  magnesln  clay  (grin,  this  went  down  42  feel  to 
water;  water  in  gravel. 

I  3  feet  soil,  2  feet  cement  (grit),  48  feet  gravel  and  sand,  162  feet  bard 
i  clav,  with  a  very  little  shelly  rock  1  foot  gravel,  30  feet  clay  aod 
soft  rock  .  then  clay  and  fine  sand  mixed  to  263  feet ;  tben  1  foot 
of  clay,  nnd  tben  into  gravel  Bud  water. 

•  1  feet  enrtb,  6  feet  gravel,  10  or  15  feet  brown  clav;  then  magnesia 

forfunt ion  (grit)  and  brown  clay  with  layers  of  gravel  down  to 
200  feet.  Irom  200  feet  down  "alternating  layers  of  1J  to  2  feet 
|  sand  nnd  3  to  4  feet  clav,  the  sanil  changing  to  gravel ;  each  layer 
'  ol  gravel  was  coarser  than  the  one  above. 

|  15  feet  earth,  20  feet  sand,  5  feet  maguesla  (grit);  then  sand  to  112 
[  feet  or  first  vein  of  water:  very  little  water,  in  the  bottom  is 
course  gravel ;  water  said  to  come  from  third  vein. 

-  40  feet  clay  and  soil,  10  or  12  feet  gravel ,  then  alternating  gravel 

and  then  sheets  of  clay  and  magnesia  rock  (grit)  to  170  feet,  or 
first  water.  This  water  iu  soft  blue  clay,  with  a  good  deal  of  fine 
sand.  At  104  feet  is  athiu  layer  of  rock,  6  feet  coarse  gravel,  with 
water  iu  bottom. 

.  j  Water  said  to  be  ln  second  vein . 

• :  12  feet  clav  ana  soil.  2  feet  magnesia  (grit)  and  clav,  17  feet 
gravel,  (ben  magnesia  i  grit  I  and  clay  for  00  or  65  feet ;  then  22 
I  feet  gravel;  no  water ;  30  feet  grit;  then  4  feet  of  conrso  water- 
worn  gravel,  and  a  very  little  fiDe  sand  with  water.  The  cosing 
stups  on  top  of  the  grit ;  no  sand  poiut  on  pump,  but  a  screen. 

0  feet  soil,  7  feet  magnesia  (grit)  rock,  24  feet  gravel  and  sand  with 
some  cloy,  4  inches  hard  rock.  4  feet  red  clav,  36  feet  gravel  with 
some  sand,  4  feet  fine  dry  sand,  flinches  hard  magnesia  rock  (grit), 
i  4»r  5  feet  clay ;  then  mixed  clay  and  gravel.  At  about  93  feet  is 
4  feet  of  hard  magnesia  rock  (griti;  tben  clay  clear  down.  Water 
I  in  day. 

2  feet  soil,  then  magnesia  (grit)  and  coarse  gravel  down  to  70  feet ; 

I  then  fine  sand ;  about  15  teet  fine  gravel  nnd  sand.  Below  95 
I  feet  is  nyarlr  all  bard  rock.  At  106  feet  thin  vein  sand;  then  6 
leet  rock  and  3  feet  sand  and  clay.  Stop  on  rock. 

-  3  feet  soil,  8  feet  magnesia  (grit),  balance  sand  ami  gravel  to  60  feet ; 
j  then  10  feet  clay ;  then  sand  to  89  feet .  tben  1  foot  rock,  and  then 
I  water  in  sand  and  gravel. 

•  10  feet  sandy  soil;  then  clay  with  spots  of  gravel,  water  iu  sand... 

•  A  little  rock  15  or  20  feet  below  surface;  red  clav  and  possibly 

shell  rock  on  top  water.  Water  said  to  be  in  thiru  vein. 

30  feet  soil  and  sandy  matter;  tben  aj’ont  10  feet  clav ;  tbeD  8  to  10 
I  feet  clay  mortar  beds  (grit);  tben  strike  water  In  quicksand  and 
]  sandy  gravel :  the  deeper  the  coarser. 

-  j  In  seen  water,  in  white  dirt ;  in  sand  all  the  way  down . 

•  3  feet  earth  ;  then  gravel  and  eat  th . . . 


...do .  Challenge .  6-8-10 


Fairly  *oft..|. 
Soft . j. 


....do  . ! 

...do . I 

Soft ;  no  al¬ 
kali. 

Soft . 

..do . 


. 

IfeJr....  No...  . 


Can 


p  dowD  some,  but 


i  pnrnp 
of  dry. 

Can  draw  out  18  barrels  (586 
gals  )  before  exhausting. 
Mill  will  pump  out  in  3 


Can  not  pump  dry .. 


No . 

No . 


No . 

No . 

Caved  In, 
not  in  use. 
Decreasing 
a  little. 


Sand  and  loam  -.  struck  water  in  fine,  greenish  sand.  This  water 
is  probablv  the  rame  as  the  water  ot  Lake  CaDon.  it  seems  to 
vary  with  lake  in  height;  water  in  lake  has  never  run  out  but  once 
in  8  years. 

8  feet  iiudy  loam.  2  feet  black  muck  or  loam.  34  foot  sandy  loam. 
8  feet  magnesia  limestone  (grit),  18  feet  sand  and  gravel,  18 
inches  clay,  4  or  5  inches  magnesia  clay,  rock.  Water  nnder 
this,  Water  in  gravel. 

16  feet  soil ;  then  broken  magnesia  rock  nnd  clay  down  for  SO  feet ; 
g| —  n  .i  -  id  dirt,  hard  on  top  of  water ;  water 


..do . 

..do . 

..do’ . 

..do . 

-do . 

.  do . 


nail  ad  ay  ... 
|  Challenge. . . 

....  ....do . 

....I. ...do . 

...i — do . 

Hal  lad  ay  ... 


4-6-8  I 
4-6-8 
6-8-10  | 
4-0-8 


*t0. 60 
400.00 

•1.35  . 
•SOO.OO  . 

300.00  | 
•315.00  I. 
300. 00 
50000  . 


Ga  Hon*.  F«t.  Ait  Fut 

.  Domcstlo  use  3,3i3  3,323  8,169  ThU  well  does  not  draw  ftvnn  the  water-bearing 

vtiatum,  which  Is  here  only  8  or  10  feet  below 

1601 00  .  2. 000  Stock .  X  559  3, 899  3,  379  bUt  U  ®M,d  ,r°w,‘  ,U,°  ,ho  nwltL 

.  . I--. .do .  3,011  3. 412  3  400  This  well  mi  put  down  to  170  feet  without 

ourblug;  thou  18  feet  cased. 


1.900  ...  do . 


85.00  . 
90.00 
90.00  . 


1,300 

1,900 


- do . 


Hard . 

Medinm  ... 


AVindraill  ... 
—  do . 


50. 00  85. 


100.00  ...  .  1,300  ....do . . 

....  2,000  ...  do  ...  ... 


...do . 

..do . 


3,061  3,374  3.334 

3,671  I  3,410  3,330 

3,704  ,  3,370  3,329 

3.610  3.349  3,343 

3,621  3,341  3,324 

3, 533  3, 323  !  3, 308 


Wanpln .  6 

Woodninnse..  2J-3J-4J 


35.00  95.00 


Windmill  ...  Perkins . 


...do . 

--.do . 

Medium  .. 


Windmill - 

Steam  pump, 
(4  in). 

Win<|aill.... 


Not  m 


1,000  ,  ...do . 


1,300  1  ...do . 


3,380  |  3,310  [  This  well  was  struck  by 


3,507  ’  3,367  1  3,320 


3,505  i  3,300 
3,693  3,423 


.... 


Bucket  . . . . 

Ilimdf. - 


Can  not  lower  with  mill  . 

Can  not  pump  dry  running  No . j  No.. 

mill  night  and  day. 


Can  lower  with  horse;  but  10  No - 

feet  of  sand  now  in  well ;  if  ( 
cleaned  ont  probably  in¬ 
exhaustible. 

Can  pump  drv  by  hand,  but  No.... 
not  with  mill 

Can  not  haul  down  with 
horse  ami  6-gallon  bucket. 

Mill  in  good  wind  pump 
ont  in  20  minutes;  but 
water  probably  can  not 
get  through  po’lnt. 

’*•  >•«>•  pump  ary . I 


No.... 


Can  11 


Cannot  pump  drv.  bnt  could  No . 

draw  dry  with  bucket. 

Can  not  lower  with  mill  ...  Yes;  115  feet 


1  No . 

I 

No . 


then  6  feet  sand;  then  monuou  ui 
in  bard  sand  and  probably  gravel. 

10  or  12  feet  saudy  soil,  6  feet  black  hard  soil,  60  feet  loose  sand  (no 
curb).  20  feet  soft  sand  (curb), 92  feet  white,  dry  magnesia  (grit), 
very  dry  and  hard,  3  feet  sand.  5  teet  magnesia;  water  in  mag¬ 
nesia.  Water  came  to  the  top  of  the  3  feet  of  sand. 

20  feet  soil,  about  40  feet  black  soil  nnd  clay,  4  feet  light  sand  (curb), 
very  fine.  Then  hard,  sandy  dirt.  At  110  feet  begins  62  feet  of 
magnesia  (grit),  very  dry  and  hard,  8  feet  gravel,  coarser  near 
bottom.  Water  in  this. 

4  feet  soil,  50  feet  snnd,  3  feet  loose  sand  (curb),  100  feet  harder  sand 
with  some  clav,  6  feet  red  loose  clay  (cnrbl,  10  or  12  feet  snnd  and 
cloy,  4  feet  fine  sand  (curb);  then  clay  and  sand,  with  some 
magnesia  to  192  feet;  then  15  feet  red  clay,  little  snnd,  water 
iD  sand  ,  coarser  aa  you  go  down. 

100  feet  sandy  loam;  then  strata  of  thin  clay.  There  are  scattering 
rocks  through  the  ground.  At,  ISO  leet  strike  dipping  rock  5  feet 
thick  ,  then  fine  sand  on  top  nud  water  in  fine  gravel. 

At  about  214  feet  to  230  feet  in  magnesia  rock .  then  into  fine  sand, 
and  down  51  feet .  at  fbe  bottom  in  coarse  gravel. 

Hard  stratum  of  gray  clay,  160  feet  down,  about  1  foot  thick.  First 
water  above  this ;  under  this  fine  Band  with  a  little  gravel  iu  hot 
tom  ua  coarse  as  packers'  salt  ;  water  In  this. 


Windmill .. 
Horse . 


Windmill . (  Duplex  .. 


Goodhue.  J 
Eclipse 


2  feet  soil,  48  feet  sandy  clay,  8  feet  soft  sand  (curb),  50  feet  sand  and 
clav  with  small  stones,  10  or  12  feet  soft  sand  (curb)  ,  60  feet  sand 
and  clay  wltb  small  stones.  16  feet  soft  sand  icurb)  10  or  12  feet 
hard  material;  1J  feet  sandstone ;  could  break  it  np  with  bars-,  ] 

5  or  6  feet  magnesia  rock;  then  red  sandy  matter  (not  curbed) 
until  reach  water  in  sand  ami  fine  gravel.  ’ 

65  feet  earth  and  sand.  150  feet  magnesia  (grit),  10  feel  mixed  ma-  Hard . 

terial,  10  feet  sand  and  water.  (This  Information  as  to  magnesia  | 
not  trustworthy.) 

4  feet  earth,  00  feet  sand  and  clay,  hard  as  one  could  spade,  about  Allttlehard. 
30  feet  magnesia  (grit).  There  is  55  feet  curbing  water  in  fine 
sand,  coarser  in  bottom,  as  large  as  peas  in  the  bottom. 

4  feet  earth,  CO  feet  white  and  yellow  clay  with  sand.  2  feet  fine  . 

sand  (curb),  30  feet  bard  dirt,  60  feet  magnesia  (grit),  25  feet  bard 
saml ;  then  fine  sand  and  water.  The  well  atopB  in  gravel. 

In  sand  hills,  probably  nearly  all  sand . 

In  sand  hills,  pi 

Water  in  sand,  f 


Sand  with  streaks  of  clay  .  water  in  sand.  The  miin  who  dug  well  ....do  . . 
thought  that  gravel  would  be  reached  in  20  feet  farther 

12  or  14  teet  in  3  or  4  strata,  rest  suml.  3  feet  of  clay  Just  above  i - do  .. 

water  ,  then  15  feet  sand.  2  feet  clay  ;  tben  sand. 

Top  soil  nnd  loam,  with  some  clay  for  100  feet ;  then  quicksand  to  1 - do  .. 

bottom  of  the  well. 


I  Windmill -  Goodhue.. 


...do  . 

. .  do . 

_ do . 

—  do . 

Bucket . 


Halladoy  — 

|  Goodhue . 

Dempster — 
Hazcn . 


I  Horse . 


0. 70 
*0.75 


Sand  nnd  clay  ;  owner  thinks  there  is  a  layer  of  day  above  water;  1 — do  . 
streaks  of  clay  about  every  10  feet .  bottom  now 'in  clay;  water  j 
in  fine  sand. 

Baud  all  the  way  to  bottom;  bottom  in  blue  clay  ;  water  in  snnd . do  . 

no  quicksand. 

10  feet  soil,  H  or  10  feet  soft  sand,  4  feet  clay.  12  feet  sand,  3  or  4  Hard  .. 
feet  clav.  alternating  sand  nnd  clay  for  80  feet;  quicksand  and  I 
water  at  80  feet ;  10  or  12  feet  sand  nnd  tben  a  little  clay ;  alterna¬ 
ting  snnd  and  clay  to  183  feet ;  then  4  feet  sandstone  (supposed).  6 
leet  of  ouicksand';  2  feet  sandstone,  6  feet  gravel ;  water.  This  j  . 
wuter  rises  to  height  ot  first  vein  at  80  feet. 


Windmill .  Dempster... 

Horae . 

Windmill -  Centennial.. 

| — do .  Nichols . 


110.  00 
*0. 65 


»0. 00 
75.00  . 
15. 00 


36.  00 
90.00 


his  well  was  struck  by  llghtolng  nt  01 
the  lightning  burst  the  snnd  point. 


Information  not  trustworthy. 


3,  572  3, 460  3, 457 


Stock _  3, 663  3,  173 


.  3. 553  3, 447 

Stock .  3, 548  3, 480 

Engines .  3,  588  3, 4«4 


3.445 

3.  404 
3,364 


This  water  height  is  probably  too  high. 
This  well  in  w  ater  of  Lake  CaDon. 


5. 00  !  0,  000  |  Stock _ _ _ 

600  ....do  . 


800  ,...  do . 


Slock  am 
creamery. 
Stuck . 

_ do . 

— do  ....  .. 


2,  853 
2, 945 


50,  00  j 

20.00  | 


.  800  ...  do  .. 

.  COO  ....do  . 

0.75  1,201  ....do. 


3,025 
2, 901 


3,  035 
3,  020 
3,002 

2,847 
2, 957 


2,397 
3, 047 
3,042 


..do .  Goodbue... 

..do .  Challenge  . 


45. 00 
•0 . 75  ; . 


90.00 

80.00  j. 


1,100  ...  do . I  3,057 

1,000  ...  do .  3.020 


2,753  2,740  , 


2, 741 
2, 701 


2,  790  J  2,762  This  well  caved  In  in  summer  of  1690,  and  Is  now 
abandoned. 

2, 809  j  2,  600  The  water  level  is  3  feet  lower  now  In  well  tbau 
|  than  when  the  well  was  first  dug. 


2,817  2,807 

2,  802  1  2, 762 


2,794 
2. 873 


2.  779 
2,869 


2.917  2,897 

2.918  2,880 


2.927  2,921 

2, 910  2,  817 


10  feet  sand  tube  In  bottom. 


Jost  started  pumping  when  well  was'examined. 


This  well  is  probably  below  the  mortar  beds 
(grit). 

Could  find  no  ono  wbo  could  give  any  informa 


Owner  dug  well  himself,  cosing  coat  <15;  lie 
uses  mlllto  ruu  corn  mill. 

Owner  dug  well  himself,  casing  cost  116. 


S.  Ex.  53,  pt,  2 


•  Per  foot,  Including  pump. 


•Including  pump  and  mill. 


•Including  pump. 


‘None  in 2 years. 


•  None  in  2J  year*. 


I  ATI  ON  OF  WELL 


ALTGE1.D  HALL  STACKS 


Location. 

No 

woll 

When 

ined. 

Nome  and  address  of  owner.  j 

-  w 

On  North  Plstte  Hue  In  Nobrasku — Continued. 
Iu  town  of  North  Platte,  Nebr . . . . 

B3 

1800. 
Nov.  21 

l 

W.S.  Peniilson,  Xo^tli  Platte,  Nolir . 

NE.  J  soc.  30,  T.  10  N.,  It.  21  W . 

64 

Nov.  24 

R,  J.  Billingsley,  Lexington,  Nebi . 

SE.  i  NE.  i  sec.  10,  T.  10  X..  It.  21  W . 

65 

Nov.  24 

John  Croud),  Lexington,  Nebr . . 

SE.  i  sec.  19,  T.UN..R.21  W . 

S8 

Nov.  24 

Arcblo  Mao  Lean  Lexington,  Nebr . 

yftr  74 

SW.  4  sec.  32.  T.  l£  N.,  R.  21  W . 

60 

Nov.  24 

B.J.  Durr  ns,  LoxLngtoD.  Nebr . 

SW.  J  NW.  1  sec.  32,  T.  13  N.,  R  21  W . 

02 

Nov.  21 

Thomas  Brown,  Lomax.  Nebr . j 

NE.  1  see.  13,  T.  13  N.,  It.  21  W  .  . 

63 

Nov,  24 

Allen  E  Com  ml,  01, ix  (Oconto),  Nebr.,..] 

NW.  J  NW.  J  sec. 20,  T.  13  N.,  R.  21 W . 

X  W  |  N  W.  i  sec.  5.  X.  13  X  ,  R  21  W . 

65 

66 

Nov.  25 

Francis  Wilcox  Olnx  (Oconto),  Nobr .  “b 

KE.Jsoo  31.T.14N..R21  W . 

67 

Nov.  25 

W.  J.  11  lull v,  Olax  (Oconto),  Nobr .  r*° 

68 

Nov.  25 

W.  D  Colo,  Olax  (Oconto),  Nobr  . 

SE.  1  NE  4  sec.  31.  X.  9  X.,  It.  21  W .  ^ 

00 

SW  1  soc.  35,  T.  0  N.,  R  21  W . 

70 

Nov,  20 

O  H Middleton,  Lexington, Nobr .  Jea 

SE.  i  sec.  6,  T,  8  N„  R,  21  W .  .. 

71 

Nov.  20 

it,  NS’,  Bell,  Leiitigton,  Nobr .  u*.v 

8W.4  SW.  4  boo.  8,  T.  8  N.,  R.  21  W . ...J 

SW.  £  SW.  1  soc.  11,  T  8N..R.21W  . 

72 

Nov.  20 

73 

Nov.  20 

h.  T.  Walhico,  Lexington,  Nobr . 

NE.  JNE.lnoo.22,  T.  8  X.,  R.  21  W . j 

74 

Nov.  20 

A.  X.  Axoltol,  Lexington,  Nebr . J  >‘oft 

SE.  J  NE.  J  sec.  34,  X.  8  N  .  R.  21  W . 

76  | 

Nov.  20 

A.  J.  Tolbert],  Berlrand,  Nebr  . .  J'*11 

NW.  j  NW.  J  soc.  2,  T.  7  N  .  R  21  W  . 

76 

Nov.  20 

NW.  J  NW.  J  sec.  11,  T.  7  N  R  21  W  .... 

77 

Nov.  20 

John  Kelley,  Dcrtruml,  Nobr . .  '’«a 

William  Went,  Bertrand,  Nobr  . ,  n'-. 

78  | 

Nov.  20 

NE.  J#ee.  1.  X.  ON,  R.  21  W  . 

70 

Nov.  27 

- ,  neat  Bertrand  Nobr . .  N0*1 

A  A  Peterson,  Bertrand,  Nobr .  hj’. 

80 

Nov.  27 

SW.  J  N  W.  J  sec.  18.  T.  0  N  .  R.  20  W . [ 

81 

Nov.  27 

A.  K.  Dyer,  Bertrand,  Nobr . .wine. 

Appendix  No.  10.— DETAILED  INFORMATION  OF  WELLS  REFERRED  TO  ON  PROFILES  NOS.  '1  TO  8— Continued. 

[Well*  examined  by  W.  W.  Follett] 


Kind  of  woll.1'  Slt« 


Amount  of  water. 


water.  ,  water. 


t.,l«7 .  Drilled.. 


knjr  .  1890  ....|  Bored .  Sln.dlam.. 


— i  H  In.  dlatn  .l 
..  2  In.  dlam 
I)  in.  dlam  . 


103  Can  not  puiop  out .  Yes ;  103  foot  . . 


Tc«  00  feet ... 


Strata  parsed  through. 


Driven. 
Bored. 
Dug  ... 


r"d0 . 

|  3  by  3  feet  . 


Hydraulic . .  2  In.  dinm  . 


’ .  Bored,  wood  I  8  in  dlam  . . . 
|  casing.  j 

.  .J  Hydraulic  ..'  2  in. diam  .. 
.  1  Bored,  wood  lOlii.dlaiu  . 
I  caslug _ 


tutor,  1887  ...  :..do .  ...  do  . 

year*  ago  ...j  Dug .  3  by  3  feet . 


...J  3  by  5  f 
. 1J  In.d 


[  Bored . 

|  Bored  .wood 


10  iu.  diam. . 
. .  do  . . . 


I  ..  do 
I  . . . do  . . 
1  ...do  .. 


8.  W.  J  Sty,  J  sec.  18,  T.  6  N.,  R  30  W  . 

h'E.  J  NE.Jsee  25,  T.  5N..R.21  W  _ 

N W.  J  SW.  j  «oa  81,  T.  6  N.,  It.  SO  W _ 

KB.  J  SE.  i  sec.  U,  T. 4  N..  R.  21  W  . 
N  W.  J  NW.  i  eoc,  23,  T.  4  X.,  R  21  W _ 

On  Grand  Island  lino  In  Nabraikn: 

SW. .J.  s«w  0. T.INJi  OtV  . 

N  L.  J  N E,  J.  aeo.  30,  T.  2  N . ,  R  10  W . 

NW.J  NW.J.eec.  19, T. 2  N..  R.O  W _ 

SW.  J  SW.  J  sco.  0.  T.  2  N„  ROW  ... 

SW.  J  SW .  J  aec.  19.  T.  3  X.,  ROW . 

KB. }  NE.  J  eec.  13,  X.  4  N.,  It.  10  W  . 

NW.  4  N  W.  J  aoc.  31.  X.  4  K.,  R.  0  W . 

8  W.  4  mo.  30,  T.  4  N.,  R  0  W . 

SW.  4  sea  7,  T.  4  N.,  R.  9  W . 

SE.  J  eec.  30.  T.  5  X.,  It.  9  W . 

SE-4  »eo.  7,  T.  5  N,,  R.  9  W . 

HE.  f  SR.  4 
KB.  J  eec.  3 

v'£  I  1  •oc-  13uT  0  S  iK  10  W.. 

*  $?,  *  31.  7  N  k  0  tv  . .. 

St\  .4  SW  .  4  sec  10,  X.  IK..  It.  0  W... 

At  Hastings,  Nebr . 


KE-4  8E.4  see.  SC.  X.  8  N.,  R.  10  W... 
NE.  4  sec.  24,  1.8  N  ,  R  10  W 
SW  4  SW .  1  sec  31,  i.  9  N..  It.  9  W. .  V. 

NW.4  sec. 29,  T.  9X.,  R.9  W . 

NE.  4  SE.  4  ecc.  13,  X.  9  N.,  R  lo  W 


83  1  Nor.  27  Crl«.  GftllnOa  ,  Bertrand,  Nobr . 

81  ;  Nov.  27  J.  K.  Stansbury,  Oxford.  Nobr . . 

S.  II.  Voonian,  Oxford,  Nebr . 

T. B  Miller,  Oxford,  Nebr . 

87  Nov.  27  !  A.  Watson, Oxford,  Nebr . 

88  Nov.  27  Frod.Uulto,  Oxford,  Nebr . . . 

80  Nov.  30  !  . 

00  Nov.  80  j  A.  E.  Frnsor,  Guide  Rock,  Nobr.'.'.'.'.'!.'” 

01  Nov.  3o  J  Samuel  Brunet,  Guido  Rock,  Nobr . 

02  Nov.  30  j  W.  H.  Thompson,  Cowles,  Nobr . 

03  Nov.  30  John  Crawford,  Cowles,  Nebr . 

94  Nov.  30  F.  H.  Gorlaeb,  Blue  HlU,  Nebr . 


Tubular.... 


05  Nov.  ; 
00  Nov.  J 
07  Dec. 

08  Doc. 

00  Doc 

100 
101 


SE.  4  SE.  4  sec,  36,  X.  10  X.,  R  10  W  ... 

,2- T  10  N-  R-  low... 
J  sec.  36  T.  12  N  .  R.  10  W  ... 
bE  J  bW.4  sec. 32.  T  13  X  .  It.  0  W  ... 

NW  4  NE.  4  sec.  18,  T.  13  X.,  R.  9  W  . . 

NE  4  eec.  15,  T.  14  N.,  R  10  W . 

On  Great  Bend  line  iu  Kansas 

N tV.  4  NW.  4  see.  9,  T.24  S  ,  R.  13  W. . 

8W.  4  S»« .  28.  X  24  S.  H.  13  tv . 

N  W  .  1  N  tV  J  sec  9.  T.  25  S  ,  R.  13  tV 


Henry  Grime,  Kosemont.  Nobr . 

Louis  Sebuniau.  Bluo  Hill,  Nebr . 

J  C.  Curry,  Bluo  Hill,  Nobr . 

Tbomns  Joues.  l’auliuo,  Nobr . 

E  L  Bozeman.  Pauline,  Nobr . 

J  A.  Leo,  Le  Rov,  Nebr . 

H  C  Bunker,  L«  Roy,  Nebr . 

John  Ransom,  Hastings,  Nebr . 

J  L.  Vo»t,  Hastings,  Nebr . 

Judge  Gaston,  Alma,  Nebr . 

Hastings  Gu«  Well  Company,  Hastings, 


Doe.  2  O.  B,  Ilewett.  Haetlugs,  Nebr . 

ml  n0®  V  S'-,*-.  Baird.  Haslinge,  Nobr....! . 

lid  Dec.  .  t  L.  Peabody.  Hauson,  Nebr . 

Ko  Dec-  2  Goorgo  Grontbom,  Doniphan,  Nebr. ... 

110  Doc.  2  J.  F.  Colo,  Doniphan,  Nebr . 

111  Dec.  2  T. IJ.  McOnUoy. Doniphan,  Nobr . 

kuc  3  J.  W  Deumun,  Grand  Island,  Nobr _ 

11,  J.  ■.  hi  *  Kamon.  Grand  Island,  Nebr . 

11*  Doc.  3  1  bar  lea  Roberts,  Lance  Lovoix,  Nobr. . 

115  1  Dec  3  V.  llrak.  San  Llbony,  Nebr . . 

116  I  Dec.  3  J  W.  Gilman.  St.  Paul,  Nobr . 

117  ]  Doc.  8  llnrrlson  Baker,  St.John,  Kaos  . 

118  ,  Doc.  8  I  S  V an  Lion.  St.  John,  Kans  ... 

119  Dec  8  |  U.  Curtis.  SL  John,  Kans . 


in.  diam. . 
9  In  dlam 


..do  . 


1889.. 

0  years  ago . do 


casing. 

—  do  . 

,  Dug . J  3  by  3  foot  J' 

. - . .do .  ...do . 1 

•••■do . do . 


It  y  001-4  ugo  ..  ..do 
Spring,  1860  . do 

8  years  ago.  ..I  ...do  . 
Spring,  1888  .  ...do.. 

Pftll,  1888  .  ..  do  . 


Spring,  1883  . 
1  4  years  ago  . 

1  Iu  1883  . 

|  In  1876. . 

|  Mar..  1885... 


..do . 

-do . 


I  Driven  . 

Bored, wood 
casing. 


•  i  In  1880 .  . 

•  j  May.  1890. 


4  year*  ago 
:  ...do . 


..  Bored,  wood 
casiug. 

..  Tubular  ... 


...do . I 

10  In.  diam. . 


....do . 

...do  . 

...do . . 

14  In.  diam. 

10  in.  diam.. 

...do . 

11  In.  diam.. 

14  In.  dlam.. 
...do . 


...do . . 

...do  . 

18  in  to  5  in 


10  In.  diam . 
2  in.  dlam.. 


June.  1886 . do .  2  In.  dlaiu. 

10  years  ago  ..  Bored . I _ do . 

3  years  ago  . . .  Driven .  1|  In.  dlam.. 

15  years  ago . do  . . do  . 


12  !  Con  not  pomp  down.. 

11  Can  not  pump  oat.... 

12  Con  not  lower . 


16 


Can  not  pump  dry . 

Can  not  lower  with  pump  . 

Can  pump  out  in  stimmor, 
but  not  in  winter. 

Can  not  pump  down  . .  . 

Can  not  lower  with  mill  ... 


Yea .  11  foot  .. 
Ye*;  0  feet ... 


Yea . 


No . 

No . 


tier  2  feet  of  rock.  1 
a  tblu  layer  oftmtgu 
the  lirat. 


*  of  clay;  v 
eei,  loot;  the  low 
d  aud  gravel.  Thor 
u  top  of  each  vein  of 


pomps,  n - - - - - 

Suiano;  then  aUeinaliugsnnd  and  gravel  to  3 
•ft  of  Uardpau.  with  1  foot  magnesia  in  ci-nt< 

07  fret  alp-muring  wind,  gravel,  and  clay,  grnnimuy  cuaug 
line  sand  with  clay  and  loam,  evidently  wuier-boanng  sand 
loo  bard  and  tinu  for  water.  Then  16  'feet  liordpnn  .  in  cei 
feel  bind  magnesia;  then  into  sand  und  lino  manor,  gro 
coarser;  nt  90  foot  iuto  gravel;  water  bearing  stratum. 

stratum  la  probably  n~ . -  0  fjffi 

I  led  soil;  then  ‘ 

-  foot  soil,  theu  clay  until  water,  water  in  gravel 


Can  not  pump  dry  . . 


Can  not  lowor  with  mill ... 
Mill  will  pomp  out  in  30 
minutes,  but  runs  iu 
quickly. 


26  Can  lower  with  horse  and, 
i  large  bucket,  but  cad  Dot 
1  draw  dry. 

13  j  Can  not  pump  out . 

12  |-...do .  . 

12  1  Can  not  pump  down . 

10  Can  not  pump  out . 

19  [-...do . 

30  -  Can  not  lower . 

25  Can  not  pump  out . 

20  |  Can  not  pump  down . 

12  Can  not  lower  with  pump... 


23  |  Can  not  lower  with  pump  . 


...  No . 

Yes,  probably...'  No, _ 

Yes,  23  feet’ — j  No _ 


coarser  gravel,  with  water'.  At  15  to  Is  feet  is  u  »tr. 

1  noil 

■!  f'-ct  soil,  white  clay  until  water,  water  iu  sand,  t: 

I  sand  lirst  at  about  60  feet. 

.  50  feet  sand  nnd  white  clay,  7  feet  magnesia  (grill,  1  01  « 

clay,  4  feet  white  mind  with  tirst  water,  2  feet  iu  gravel ,  stop. 

.  Hard  material  above  water,  water  in  gravel  . 

Sandy  clay  down  to  water  Just  above  water  thin  she! 
water  in  gravel  rose  very  rapiillv. 

1  r.Af  .All  0.1  ,  _ ..I  '  ,  '  1  .....  . 


25  foot  clay,  still  iu  clay,  but  gutting  softer.  Last  20  feet  u 
water,  but  not.ouougli  to  be  ■  !  nnv  aceotiut 

.  6  J*-ot  soil,  5  feel  subsoil,  8  feet  black  gumbo,  then  light  clav 

little  sand  gradually  changing  into  sand.  At  200  feet  about  1 
oi  day  with  some  iiiagneaiu.  then  Baud  aud  gravel  to  240 
there  3  Icet  haul  day;  tapped  water  nt  243  feet,  went  1; 


Increasing . 


15  feet. 


1  quicksand  t 


Can  not  sav.. 
Yes  ,  23  feet  .. 


s« . 

....  No . 


4  led  soil  12a  feet  saudy  clay,  then  10  fed  quicksand  In  v . 

1  ho  well  stopped  on  hard  material,  probably  clay  Found  a  Jin 

bone  of  some  large  mammal  in  bottom,  this  is  la  the  - 

vein  ot  water. 

7  feet  soil,  thoD  gray  sand  and  clav  ;  at  75  feet  8  or  10  foot  l 
tough  clay;  under  this  a  little  water, 'ben  sutid.  Water  h 
gravel. 


water,  then  tine  gravel 


- ~  . “  —  ^  v,.,,  iu,.u  (iu,  nv,  Mi.iiuil.il  | 

...I  I  pud  111  pipe;  pipe  drove  very  bard.  Probably  quicksand. 

.  •  •  :  "  uter  in  gravel . ' . do  . 

cso' .  '  4  loot  noil.  16  feet  clay  with  some  sand  nt  20  feet  struck  quick-  . 


Yes;  25  feet  .... 
Yes;  20  feet .... 
No . 


I  4  feet  soil,  63  feet  ti 


3  feet  soil,  about  00  feet  yellow  cln 
at  220  feet  ;  then  wet  sand  nnd  n 
Water  In  saud . 


10* 


Uanuotpumndow, 


.  No. 


12  Can  uot  lower  with  pump  Yo-s.  3  fee 

8  ...do .  No.. . 

15  Can  pump  out  oruoarly  out.  No . 

2J  Mill  running  all  dav  will  No . 

lower,  but  not  pump  dry. 

10  Mill  pumps  down  to  1  foot,  Yes;  8  feet . 

but  then  can  not  lower. 

14  Mill  puuips  out  in  half  horn 


lo  |  Can  not  lowor  .... 


No. 


12  Can  not  pump  down . j  No . 

10  Can  not  lower  with  pump  .  |  No . 

28  Can  pomp  out  In  heavy  No . 


Can  not  pump  down. . 

Can  pump  nearly  down 

Can  not  pump  dowu . 

...do . 

...do . 

Cau  not  lower  with  pump 

Can  not  pump  dowu . 

...do . 

...do . 


Can  not  pump  out  . 


Can  pump  out . 

Can  not  pnrnp  dowu  . . 


No.. 


No . 

No . 

Yes;  0  feet ... 


No . 

No . 

Yus.  45  feet  . 

No . . 

Con  not  say. .. 


...'  Nil 
...|Nii . 


1  No . 

;  No . 

No . 

No . 

No . 

No . 

NuJ . 

No . 

*j . 

No . 

No . 

No . 

No  . 

No  . 


bottom  coarse  gtavel. 


clay  and  saud  ,  at  225  feet  struck  lo  feet  or  small  rocks, 
loot  2  feet  wet  sand,  then  0  feet  of  quicksand  and  2  feet  gravel. 

3  leet  Boil,  00  feet  clay,  75  feet  loose  drv  saud.  5U  feet  ’ 
leer  saud,  3  feet  gumbo  1  wet  black  clay'),  then  sand  ati 
At  216  foot  is  2  feet  of  gravel.  At  bottom  4  feet  gravel 

1-icoLo.ujL  abqutju  fcef  iii  sand  and^rav.-l  .... 

45  feet  elay,  50  feet  red  sail'd,  20  feet  clay  with  rocks  iu  i 
coarse  gravel,  18  feet  tine  sand,  10  feet  coarse  gravel, 

4  feet  soil,  63  feet  clay,  tlieu  red  sand.  Above  water  is  3 
of  dark  gumbo,  8  feet  sand  and  water,  changing  togruvel  in  bottom. 

Water  in  clay  with  sand.  No  curbing;  walls  stand  without.  Cla 
and  saud  all  the  way  down. 

3  feet  soil,  70  feet  brownish  clay,  some  sand,  8  feet  saDd,  12  fee 
brown  sandstone.  Wnter  comes  in  tliiotigli  black  boles  in  tb 
stone.  There  are  three  wells  on  this  place  all  the  same. 

3  feet  soil,  theu  clay  .  Wnter  iu  dark  holes  iu  sandstone,  same  a 


a  clay  till  101  feet  about ,  then  3  feet  gravel , 


5  or  6  i  ...do  .... 


S.  Ex.  53,  pt.  2 


gravel,  dry;  12  feet  day;  tiion  water' lit  clay  t 
sand  Stop  in  this.  Probably  at  114  feet  will  find  sandstone. 

Clay  until  46  feet,  theu  snnd  ana  gravel . 

4  feet  soil,  then  lighter  soil  down  to6U  feet,  then  sand  to  bottom  , 

T-  feet  struck  wnter  iu  coarse  gravel,  quicksand  iu  bottom. 

18  teot  topsoil  and  subsoil,  .then  gravel  from  size  of  hen's  egg  dot  ... 
«  ater  iu  gravel  aud  coarse  sand  .  near  water  wu»  a  little  quick 
sand. 

2  foot  soil,  16  feet  clay ;  coarse  saud  aud  flne  gravel  to 
change  in  materiul  wbetc  water  is  struck. 

3  feet  soil,  20  feet  clay,  coarse  sand  aud  gravel  the  res 
water  lu  saud  and  gravel. 

3  feet  soil,  15  feet  clay,  4  foot  black  soil,  rest  clay,  so 
t-itok  clear  to  bottom.  Water  seeps  iu  from  sides. 

1  loot  soil;  then  all  yellow  clay  to  bottom;  seeps  iu  from  sides, 
some  small  rock. 

3  feet  soil ;  theu  ii 
stopped  ou  rock. 

5  feet  soil.  25  feot  yellow  loose  subsoil,  25  feet  yellow  clav  with  sa 
tb«u  some  material  in  water,  only  soft;  boftom  well  the  same. 

C  feet  soil,  120  feet  clay  with  vet  y  little  Baud ,  then  quicksand  and 
water,  10  feet  gravel  to  bottom,  stopped  in  graveL 

5  teot  soil,  55  feet  hard  clay,  8  or  10  feet  sand,  25  feot  cla’ 
snnd  ,  then  Water  in  sand  iind  gravel;  stopped  in  gravel.' 

Probably  gravel  at  20  feet  . . . 

3  feet  soil,  40  feet  roddlsh  olay,  20  feet  dry  fluo  snnd  ;  under  this 
clay  ag  dn,  probably  some  sand  above  water  ;  water  iu  gravel. 

W  ater  iu  grav.-l ;  don’t  think  any  sand . . . 

At  about  5o  feet,  sand;  15  or  20  feet  of  saud ;  gravel  iu  bottom  _ 

4  leet  soil,  4  feet  white  clay  .  at  80  feet  is  caving  saud,  3  feet  clav 
then  saud  aud  gravel  with  water. 

loo  leet  alluvial  soil  nud  clay,  60  leet  gravel  aud  saud.  full  of  water  , 

4  feet  clav  with  round  stones  in  it.  very  hard,  maybe  impervious 
matter:  00  feet  gravel  ami  saud  full  of  water,  0  feot  vellow  clay, 
27  leet  light  yellow  ocher,  0  feet  gray  ocher,  gradually  changing 
to  Hoft  durk  shale,  677  feet  blue  shale,  uo  wutet  ;  1  slron”  vein 
salt  water  rising  Io40  feet,  and  giving 50  percent.  saturateiTsolu 
lion  of  salt ;  204  feot  blue  shale,  no  water.  At  1,115  feet  bottom 
:n  flue  round  sund.  probably  water  beariug. 

Water  in  gravel . .' . 

Sand  in  bottom . . . . . . 

3  or  4  feet  sell,  7o  feet  clay,  then  gravel,  probably  clay  above  water; 
water  in  gravel 

Sleet  soil,  then  white  clay  down  to  uear  water,  or  about  6S  feet; 
then  sand  and  water,  bottom  of  well  ou  olay. 

2  feet  soil,  8  feot  subsoil,  50  feet  yellow  clay,  getting  yellower  as 
iur.  ami  at  bottom  whitish,  at  60  feet  changing  to  rand,  nt  70  1 
“)1  sand,  at  75  feet  water  in  quicksand.  Stopped  in  coarse 


gravel 

4  feot  soil,  13  feel  saody  clay,  then  quicksand  nnd  water;  2  feet 
gravel  in  bottom. 

Water  In  gravel-,  wnter  comes  to  top  of  gravel.  .. 

.  4  feet  soil  4  feot  clav,  then  sand .  water  iu  gravel . 

•J  8  feet  soil,  then  sand;  nt  20  feet  about  1  foot  of  verv 
theu  saud  under  hnnlpiui,  and  gravel  at  bottom. ' 

.  2  feet  sapdy  soil,  8  feet  clay.  0  feet  saud,  then  quicks 

,  At  30  feet  a  hard  layer  nhont  2  feet  thick  or  mote  Iu  coarse  gravel, 

1  rest  snuil 

.  1  foot  soil.  8  feet  sand,  5  foot  blue  clav,  water  on  top  of  this  clay,  but  ! 
not  good  supply ;  6  feet  gravel  and  good  supply  of  water. 

.  7  feet  soil,  2  feet  lmrdpan,  8  feet  gravelly  sand,  8  feet  flne  sand,  2  fee 
blue  day.  then  water  iu  elny  changing  to  saud  ,  point  in  saud. 

Clav  above  water;  water  in  sand  . 

4  feet  soli,  clay;  6  feet  clay  and  sand,  10  feot  red  hard  saud.  thet. 
softer  snnd  Water  at  26  feet;  6  or  7  feet  quicksand,  then  bard  \ 
mutter,  gravel  iu  bottom. 


"  None;  run  3  years. 


"  None  In  1}  years. 


"  None  in  1  years. 


Water. 

'  mill. 

Cost. 

Maxi 

Elevation. 

Ktud 

Well 

Pump. 

Mill. 

Repairs 

pumped 
per  day. 

Sur- 

1  Water 

Quality. 

How  raised. 

-j - 

- 

i  face. 

torn. 

ter  Very  so: 
un-  aud  purr 

)Jy 
opt  1 

Hand . 

•86.85 

(I ideas 

FNt. 

F«t. 

2.704 

Ferr. 

001 

!  2,501 

ky 

14 

to 

at  | 
as  ] 

his 

.  — do . 

4 

2.405 

2,  421 

2.426 

2.392 

2, 401 

2. 404 

et..j  Hnid;  tus 
be  alkali 
nd  Hard . 

.  Windmill... 

i--.-do . 

■  '  llar.en 

Mouitc 

Hal  lad 

>■.... 

0 

6-8 

15. 00 

15.00 

i  96. 00 

1  6.00 

975.  00 

!  05.00 

1,000 

*,400 

...da . 

..  do . 

2,300 

3. 392 

rk 

« 

|  106. 00 

*910.00 

2,47* 

2. 426 

2, 410 

el.  1 — do . 

•  j  — do  - . 

25.00 

i‘"'® . . 

ue  ....do  .... 

. do . 

i  ; 

65.00 

1.600 

-do . 

2,  409 

;  2,457 

2.407 

Eclipse 

ilsll.nl 

1.600 

...  do  . . 

i9 

...  Soft . 

J  - 

■  6-8-10 

•1.15 

90.06 

'•0.00 

1.300 

- ila . 

2. 623 

i  ?,  449 

3,386 

. do . 

2, 006 

2,  418 

2.  401 

■J> 

Eollpso 

t*370.00 

2,400 

Stock ........ 

2,072 

2,474 

2,414 

et  | 
t. 

It 

100.  00 

06 

"  d0 . 

<1 

d  1  Soft  . 

r.  Very  lianl. 

it 

Windmill.... 
--  do . 

Enterp 
- do  . 

lie  . . 

4-6-8 

6 

•200. 00 
12.00 

35.00 

100, 00 
100. 00 

3.200 

1,000 

. . .  -do . 

...do . 

2.  50* 
2,  393 

,  2.414 

2,  434 

2,  418 

45.  00 

100.  00 

600 

...do  . 

2,653 

2,413 

i,  j  Hard . 

^ — do . 

Bird  .. 

n  |  Medium  ... 

Horae . 

. 

*.  W° 

Windmill . 

Hand . 

Cballeu 

2<’  ■- 

6 

00.00 

ooa 

-do . 

2,  304 

2. 370 

2.  360 

u  Medium  ... 

.  6-8 

43.10 

t  |  Hard . 

>1  1 

Windmill . 

Moulto 

. 

2, 342 

......do  . 

- do . 

Hand . 

Donipst 

12.00 

Household.... 

2[  365 

2.  345 

60.  00 

Stock . 

2.319 

2,322 

)  Hard . 

d. 

Windmill . 

Enterpt 

1  .... 

6 

12o.  00 

2,  400 

2,  630 

2,  352 

- do . 

Bertrau 

. do . 

— do . 

;c ... . 

0 

'"•‘22x  66’ 

2,  40() 

..  do . 

Cb  alien 
Moultot 

("J 

2,  400 

...do . 

...do . 

2,  *98 

2. 332 
2, 308 

2,  312 

r  Hard  . 

— do  .  . 

Hand . 

2,600 

2,521 

2,  270 

2,  271 

.  —  .do . 

2, 280 
2, 283 

-•  . .  do . 

Windmill . 

IS-:  .. 

0 

125. 00 

50.  00 

125.  66 

l“> 

1, 300 

Medium  . . . . 

—  do . 

F.nterpt 

...do  . 

...do . 

6 

•120.00 

76.  00 

050 

2.477 

2,274 

2,  231 

Star  .. 

G 

.  wiL-UO 

rtf’#7 

t  Soft  ......  .. 

....ilo  — . . 

- 

. 

C 

35.  00 

35.  00 

00.00  . 

2. 000 

2,262 

2. 240 

...do _ 

Star  ... 

iso  ... 

Hard . 

6 

1, 000 

2, 318 

...do . . 

Enterpt 

6 

45.00 

0J.  00 

1,600 

2,330 

2,  222 

2,207 

...do . 

...do  .. 

— do . 

20.00 

15,00 

80.  00 

1 . 000 

2, 185 

2,182 

...da  .. 

- do . 

1 . 

C 

15. 00 

80.00 

(•) 

1,000 

- do . 

2,224 

2,101 

2,181 

...do .  ,.l 

Bet  It  ju 

6 

40.00 

35. 00 

105.00 

“25.  00 

300 

2,172 

- do . 

2,  078 

2,  061 

...do  . . 

Bird  ... 

1,  703 

1,  783 

1.  (i'll 
1,001 

1.033 

1,083 

-  Soft . 

Hand . 

6 

40.  00 

40.00 

90. 66 

(“) 

1,300 

- do . 

...ilo . 

Windmill . 

Eclipse 

Ise.... 

6 

75.00 

6C.0U 

105.00 

i«30. 00 

1, 000 

1,821 

1.711 

1,701 

--■do  . 

Euterpt 

C 

50. 00 

*0,00 

85.00 

'*  12. 00 

1,  300 

...do . . 

1,823 

...do . 

Eclipse 

0 

11  $130. 00 

1,300 

1,848 

1,707 

1.757 

Medium  .... 

P-.-rkim 

....do . 

34.00 

25.  00 

70.  00 

(") 

500 

- do . . 

1.903 

1.839 

1,811  1 

...do . 

...do  .. 

6 

25. 00 

22.50 

80.  00 

<“) 

800 

...do . 

1,975 

1,000 

1,  895  1 

Hard  . 

Uall-id.i 

— do . 

2,  200 

...do  ...  ... 

1,  882 

1,809 

...do  . 

1 

6 

30.00 

30. 00 

45.00 

•».  B0 

1,600 

1.9*)o 

1,004 

Very  hard.. 

...do . 

.  ..do  . . 

6 

60.00 

20. 00 

90.00 

3,  200 

-do . 

1,912 

1,792 

..J 

Hard . 

05.  Ou 

35.  00 

80. 00 

("J 

2,  200 

1,  665 

1,765 

1,7*3 

Medium  .... 

...do  . 

6 

j  non 

1,703 

1,  782 

1,748 

1,775 

Soft . 

se.... 

6 

27.  00 

25  0o 

80.  00 

(*>) 

1,000 

1,877 

Hard . 

...do  . 

I't 

6 

,r6. 00 

2, 800 

--do . 

1,888 

1,779 

1,  773 

?•  llpBB 

1  1  r  liiue 

1,790 

1,80* 

Medium  ... 

...do . 

250 

—  •do . 

1. 910 

1.810 

- do . 

Hand  . . 

1,916 

1,810 

771 

6 

150 

Stock . ; 

1,903 

1,803 

1,788 

1,821 

1,  870 

1,814 

1.831 

1  Hard . . 

...do . 

. 

6 

•.85  | 

128. 00 

(“) 

2,500  i 

...do . 1 

1.9*0 

- do . |. 

-do . 

li'i’-t. 

1  «*7  1 

Very  hard..;. 

..do . 

•i.00 

70.00 

2,  *00 

...do  . 

1. 956  1 

1,881 

1,  820 

Hard . j. 

-do . 

-do  . 

6 

“1.  50 

3.  800 

...do . 

1.899  [ 

1,  813  ! 

1.871 

...do . j. 

-do . 

; -.ii  !>•!-■ 

1,870 

1,833 

1,860 

1.  8*-' 

Soft . 

C 

2,  000  | 

Stock . 

1,862  i 

Windmill . 

-do . 

Medium _ 1 . 

• 

36-... 

6 

*‘150.00  I 

<*•> 

2,400  [ 

...do  . 

1.870 

1.790 

1,790  1 

Soft . 

-do . 

1.892 

1.882 

1.872  | 

- do . . 

200  1 

180  1 

500 

Stock  . 

...do . 

—  .do . 

1,927 

1,931  1 

1,900 

1.909 

1,888 

1, 891 

1905 
1,883  1 

Hard . 

land . I . 

Hard  . i 

..do . . 

about  0  Indies  In  It. 


Last  12  foot  put  down  by  MnoLcnu 

Dug  150  foot  nnd  then  18  foot  of  2  luoh  pip#. 
Kennobco  Rauch  well. 


Water  lu  quicksand  on  hard  bottom  Wbuu  the 
wlud  Is  lu  the  south  Mr  Wilcox  tbluks  ho  can 
got  more  water  out  of  tho  well  than  when  tho 
wind  Is  lu  thu  north,  lie  dug  Ills  own  well. 
Curbing  cost  112 

This  well  would  supply  mow  than  BOO  gultous. 


Dug  18  foot  aud  driven  tho  rest  of  the  way. 


12  feet  of  10  lnoh  galruuUod  pipe  In  bottom. 
Information  uot  trustworthy 

I  1  mile  west  of  tills  well  It  a  well  on  abuut  tho 
same  level,  94  led  doon  and  thorn  Is  #  vela  of 
water,  ono  cau  hoar  tlio  water  run. 

I  Probably  gravol  12  or  IB  foot  deeper,  os  a  woll 
o  hulr  mile  uortb  Is  lu  gravel 


7  ' 


ALTGELD  HALL  STACKS 


4 


1  jm 


* 


;.y; 


'f 


*  m 


L  :  •  >  ■  ’  "J 


■ 


rt  ■  •  ’b*# 


APPENDIX  N?  1. 

CHIEF  ENGINEER’S  REPORT  JANY  15-1891. 


RICHARD  J HINT  JN,  Special  Agent  in  Charge. 
/  Edwin  S  NetOeRm.,  Supervising  Engineer. 
Robert  Hay,  G^mera!  Field  Geologist. 


At  NT  EL' 


'u'fTST  0  N' 


MADISON  j  STANTON! 


wheelErv 


G  AR  r 


iOTT s\b  L U  FF 


COMING  .KANSAS 


/ASHINgTC 


grEVley 


ToilsntibUB'yf.'Cn 
anl.  Imutm  sabft 
Flaunts  uutiaui  t 


ugh  rb  bf,  atJJfd.  L  utres. 


teYKNf 


-TON 


S  A  L I  N  . 


HELPS 


PHILLIPS 


GOSPER 


WASH 


BOU  LR.tR. 


R  N  AS 


WILLOW 


(ALL 


WASH  INI 


CAT 


P  H  I  L-L-i^' 


CHlSi 


|  jacks' 


mTT  AW  AT  0  M I  El 


S  H  E  R  m  a  n; 


MIT-PHELI 


borne:. 


CLAY 


ERSON, 


A  WA 


L  ll^C  0 


\UN  SEE  '  ' 


DOUG  LJAS 


T.AOE, 


C  \H  E.  Y  { 


BAR" ON 


MC  PIERSON 


ITT 


AWN  E 


I  LT.ON 

Y  l;  KEARNEY 


\0R0r 


0  U  R1 


WARDS 


'anton 


MO  NT  J 


STEVENS 


'GO  M  AT 


~ 

MR  AN  TEMPBllATUBR 

m  -  - 

_ 

E.S 

5*\  0 ! 

0  G 

M  A^ 

'  r  \\ 

1  V 

NM™ 

1  \ 

DICI](l 

J 

1  loDGE  VyW 

i 

lk  ' 

WsAtH^dj-RSJ 

lx  'i  X 

t|D  . 

^J^ANcWrgRi 

ff: 

r  '  V  .' '  '  *** ''-  '  A '  : '  * '  ■ 

’’.y  /'”  »*.  7  3<r*  •  •■*■  * 


fc.V’ZAV, 


ALTGELO  HALL  STACKS 


— 

II&R: 

> 

■>K^fO^V.V/  rlc' 


BULLETIN  No.  4 

•  ,  -  ‘L  T  ■  #  *  . 

(national  conservation  commission) 


PRESENTING 


THE  REPORT  OF  THE  %f" 

l 

NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION  AND 

iTfV  >.  '  ■’)  "V  ./  ‘"’V- « '  '  7  '*  *>'  .  .♦  *'  _  <  ’i%*  ,  0  V  l-  v  v.'*  '!'*  ?  .  r  ;  '  /  7,  •"  •  '  •  * 

A  CHRONOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE 
CONSERVATION  MOVEMENT 


ISSUED  BY 

THE  JOINT  COMMITTEE  ON  CONSERVATION 

,  43  WYATT  BUILDING  % 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


= 

i 


[.  Schwab,  A’eio  York 
W.  Price,  Foj'est  Service, 


j.  A.  Holmes 


ty  of  Chicago 


Gifford  I 
Theodore 
Reed  Smo 


Theodore 
Francis  < 
Jonathan 
William 
John  H. 
W  J  McGi 

F.  H.  NiTO 
Gifford  I 
Herbert 

rations 

Joseph  E 

G.  F.  Swa 
W.  L.  Mai 

Chief  o] 

Rear  Ad: 


reed  Smo 

Albert  J. 
Charles 
Champ  Ci 
J.  B.  WHi 
Henry  S. 


William 
wton  < 
Charles 
Irving 

erton 

Secreta 


IL1BRARY  OF  THE 
UN  I  VERS1TY 
OF  1  LL1  NOISl 


ICOLLEGEOI 

engineering! 


Frotn  tke  librat-ti  of 


1  i — '  1  V  ^  "  w 

CLASS  Of  J  8  73 
Presented  Mail  UQ24 
bn  filsAViclow  CLA.RA 

SHACKBTORD  OCKLR6QN 


3J0.9  73 
PI  9  c 
No.  7 


MISSION 


VERTON  W.  PRICa 
.  W.  Woodruff 
dseph  A.  Holmes 


Chai 

■ng 


airman 


ork 


ri 

:< 


onsin 


I  C.  White,  West  Virginia  ■ 

'ogical  Survey,  Secretary 


BULLETIN  No.  4. 


(national  conservation  commission.) 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 


The  Joint  Committee  on  Conservation,  now  acting  as  the  medium 
of  cooperation  through  which  the  forty  State  Conservation  Com¬ 
missions  and  the  fifty  organization  conservation  committees  are 
working  with  one  another  and  with  the  Eederal  Government,  was 
established  at  the  December  Joint  Conference  between  the  Governors 
of  States,  the  State  and  National  Commissions  and  representatives  of 
National  associations.  It  is  the  central  part  of  a  structure  that  covers 
the  whole  Nation.  A  majority  of  its  members  are  chairmen  of  State 
Conservation  Commissions.  The  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare 
and  present  to  the  State  and  National  Commissions,  and  through  them 
to  the  Governors  and  the  President,  a  plan  for  united  action  by  all 
organizations  concerned  with  the  conservation  of  natural  resources. 
This  plan  is  well  under  way. 

The  membership  and  organization  of  the  Joint  Committee  is  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 


George  C.  Pardee,  California 
W.  H.  Milton,  Florida 
Newton  C.  Blanchard,  Louisiana 
B.  N.  Baker,  Maryland 


O.  J.  Salisbury,  Utah 


Knute  Nelson,  Minnesota 
W.  K.  Kavanaugh,  Missouri 
Paris  Gibson,  Montana 
J.  N.  Teal,  Oregon 


Gifford  Pinchot,  Chairman 
Thomas  R.  Shipp,  Secretary 


At  its  meeting  in  Washington,  March  5,  the  Committee  decided  to 
establish  headquarters  in  W ashington  and  to  take  up  at  once  and  carry 
on  vigorously  the  work  of  cooperation  among  the  States  and  National 
associations  which  the  National  Conservation  Commission  had  been 
doing  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  Tawney  amendment  to  the  Sundry 
Civil  Bill.  This  amendment  prohibits  the  National  Conservation  Com¬ 
mission  from  going  on  with  this  work  under  the  Government,  although 
the  Commission  itself  continues  in  existence. 

Accordingly,  the  Joint  Committee  opened  offices  in  the  Wyatt  Build¬ 
ing*  14th  and  E  Streets,  which  will  be  national  headquarters  for  the 
work  of  cooperation  among  the  State  commissions  and  organization 
committees  until  such  time  as  the  National  Conservation  Commission 
by  authority  of  Congress  may  go  on  with  its  work. 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION. 


The  National  Conservation  Commission  came  into  existence  at  the 
direct  suggestion  of  the  Governors  of  the  States  and  Territories  as¬ 
sembled  in  Washington,  upon  invitation  of  President  Roosevelt,  at  the 
great  meeting  on  natural  resources  in  the  White  House  in  May,  1908. 
It  is  one  part  of  a  scheme  of  cooperation  between  the  States  and  the 
Nation,  the  other  part  of  which  has  been  provided  by  the  Governors 
in  the  appointment  of  State  Conservation  Commissions. 

The  Commission  was  created  by  the  President  June  8,  1908.  Under 
its  direction  the  first  inventory  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  United 
States  ever  made  has  been  accomplished.  On  this  inventory,  which 
was  completed  December  1,  1908,  the  commission  made  a  report  to  the 
President,  who  transmitted  it  to  Congress  January  22,  1909  * 

NATIONAL  INVENTORY. 

The  inventory  of  natural  resources  made  by  the  National  Conserva¬ 
tion  Commission  was  presented  at  the  meeting  of  the  Commission  held 
in  Washington,  December  1-7.  This  inventory,  the  compilation  of 
which  was  made  possible  only  through  the  vigorous  cooperation  of 
State  Conservation  Commissions,  bureaus  of  the  Federal  Government, 
and  conservation  committees  representing  national  industries,  com¬ 
prises  practically  all  information  now  available  regarding  the  condition 
and  extent  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States. 

When  the  great  accumulation  of  material  comprising  the  inventory 
was  assembled,  the  necessity  of  summarizing  it  was  immediately 
apparent.  Accordingly  under  the  direction  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
respective  sections,  the  material  relating  to  each  section  was  briefly 
stated  in  compact  summaries.  These  summaries  were  submitted  to 
the  National  Conservation  Commission  during  its  six  days  session, 
and  were  supplemented  by  statements  from  the  Government  experts 
who  had  immediate  charge  of  the  compilation  of  data.  After  these 
statements  and  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  summaries,  the  Com¬ 
mission  united  in  the  following  report  to  the  President : 

*The  publication  of  the  report  for  general  distribution  has  not  been  authorized 
by  Congress.  A  limited  edition  is  to  be  printed  as  a  Senate  document. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION. 

Letter  of  Transmittal. 

National  Conservation  Commission, 

Washington,  January  n,  1909. 

Sir:  Herewith,  I  have  the  honor  to  place  in  your  hands  the  report  of 
the  National  Conservation  Commission,  created  by  you  June  8,  1908,  to 
inquire  into  and  advise  you  as  to  the  condition  of  our  natural  resources, 
and  to  cooperate  with  other  bodies  created  for  similar  purposes  by  the 
States. 

The  executive  committee  designated  in  your  letter  creating  the  com¬ 
mission  organized  on  June  19  and  outlined  a  plan  for  making  an 
inventory  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States.  On  July  1 
work  was  undertaken,  accordingly,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  bureaus 
of  the  Federal  departments,  authorities  of  the  different  States,  and 
representative  bodies  of  the  national  industries.  The  results  of  this 
cooperative  work  are  herewith  submitted  as  appendices  of  the  commis¬ 
sion’s  report. 

The  mass  of  material  which  constitutes  the  inventory  has  been 
summarized  under  the  direction  of  the  secretaries  of  the  respective 
sections  of  the  commission  so  as  to  assemble  the  most  salient  points  of 
the  inventory.  At  the  first  general  meeting  of  the  commission,  on 
December  1,  1908,  the  summaries  of  the  four  sections  of  the  commis¬ 
sion  were  presented  and  were  supplemented  by  personal  statements  of 
the  experts  in  the  several  bureaus  in  the  executive  departments  who 
had  immediate  charge  of  the  inventory  along  their  special  lines  of  work. 
After  the  discussion  of  the  summaries  and  statements  the  commission 
united  in  the  report  which  is  herewith  submitted. 

In  view  of  the  peculiarly  valuable  contributions  and  services  rendered 
by  the  experts  of  the  several  departments,  the  commission  at  its  closing 
session  unanimously  adopted  the  following  resolutions : 

Whereas  the  commission,  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  committed  to 
it,  has  been  greatly  aided  by  the  patient  labors  and  the  ability  and  zeal 
of  its  secretary  and  the  secretary  of  each  of  its  four  sections,  and  of  the 
experts  in  the  Government  service  who  lent  their  assistance  in  the  collec¬ 
tion  of  statistical  and  other  data  necessary  to  the  elucidation  and  proper 
understanding  of  the  subjects  dealt  with,  and  to  the  preparation  of  its 
report :  Therefore 

Resolved ,  That  the  commission  hereby  makes  cordial  acknowledg¬ 
ment  of  its  obligation  to  the  gentlemen  referred  to  and  tenders  them  its 
thanks. 

Resolved  further,  That  the  secretary  of  the  commission  be  directed  to 
transmit  to  each  of  those  who  prepared  papers  and  who  appeared  before 
the  commission  a  copy  of  these  resolutions. 


3 


4 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


In  addition,  I  desire  to  call  your  special  attention  to  the  spirit  and 
devotion  of  the  gentlemen  without  whose  services  the  making  of  the 
national  inventory  would  have  been  impossible.  Through  their  great 
interest  in  the  task  intrusted  by  you  to  the  commission  and  to  them  a 
great  part  of  their  work  in  connection  with  the  inventory  was  per¬ 
formed  outside  the  official  hours.  Furthermore,  the  material  which 
they  have  prepared  presents  valuable  information  in  connection  with 
the  work  of  the  several  executive  departments  which  otherwise  would 
not  have  been  collected  at  this  time.  The  assembling  of  this  vast 
amount  of  material  is  largely  due  to  Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  whom  you 
designated  for  this  work,  and  to  whose  expert  knowledge  and  power 
of  generalization  the  commission  owes  more  than  it  can  repay. 

In  its  cooperation  “with  other  bodies  created  for  similar  purposes  by 
the  States,”  the  National  Conservation  Commission  has  had  most 
valuable  assistance.  Within  the  first  month  after  the  creation  of  the 
commission,  the  Governors  of  five  States  had  appointed  conservation 
commissions,  and  an  equal  number  of  organizations  of  national  scope 
had  named  conservation  committees.  At  the  time  of  the  recent  Joint 
Conservation  Conference  33  States  and  Territories  had  formed  conser¬ 
vation  commissions.  The  number  had  now  increased  to  36,  with 
indications  that  nearly  all  of  the  remaining  States  will  soon  take 
similar  action.  The  number  of  national  organizations  which  have  ap¬ 
pointed  conservation  committees  is  41. 

The  report  herewith  submitted  was  unanimously  approved  by  the 
Joint  Conservation  Conference.  Further  action  was  taken  by  the  con¬ 
ference  in  authorizing  a  Joint  Committee  on  Cooperation,  to  be  com¬ 
posed  of  six  members  of  State  Conservation  Commissions  and  three 
members  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  with  its  chairman 
and  secretary.  This  committee  is  to  devise  ways  and  means  for  effective 
cooperation  between  all  forces  working  for  the  conservation  of  natural 
resources.  By  this  action  the  conservation  movement  enters  the  field 
of  definite  constructive  work,  for  which  its  labors  in  ascertaining  the 
country’s  present  status  and  future  outlook  were  simply  preparatory. 

Very  respectfully, 

Gifford  Pinchot, 

Chairman. 

The  President, 

The  White  House. 


5 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 

Report  oe  the  National  Conservation  Commission.* 

The  duty  of  man  to  man,  on  which  the  integrity  of  nations  must  rest, 
is  no  higher  than  the  duty  of  each  generation  to  the  next;  and  the  obli¬ 
gation  of  the  nation  to  each  actual  citizen  is  no  more  sacred  than  the 
obligation  to  the  citizen  to  be,  who,  in  turn,  must  bear  the  nation's 
duties  and  responsibilities. 

In  this  country,  blessed  with  natural  resources  in  unsurpassed  profu¬ 
sion,  the  sense  of  responsibility  to  the  future  has  been  slow  to  awaken. 
Beginning  without  appreciation  of  the  measure  or  the  value  of  natural 
resources  other  than  land  with  water  for  commercial  uses,  our  fore¬ 
fathers  pushed  into  the  wilderness  and,  through  a  spirit  of  enterprise 
which  is  the  glory  of  the  nation,  developed  other  great  resources.  For¬ 
ests  were  cleared  away  as  obstacles  to  the  use  of  the  land;  iron  and 
coal  were  discovered  and  developed,  though  for  years  their  presence 
added  nothing  to  the  price  of  the  land ;  and  through  the  use  of  native 
woods  and  metals  and  fuels,  manufacturing  grew  beyond  all  precedent, 
and  the  country  became  a  power  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

Gradually  the  timber  growing  on  the  ground,  and  the  iron  and  coal 
within  the  ground,  came  to  have  a  market  value  and  were  bought  and 
sold  as  sources  of  wealth.  Meanwhile,  vast  holdings  of  these  resources 
were  acquired  by  those  of  greater  foresight  than  their  neighbors  before 
it  was  generally  realized  that  they  possessed  value  in  themselves ;  and 
in  this  way  large  interests,  assuming  monopolistic  proportions,  grew 
up,  with  greater  enrichment  to  their  holders  than  the  world  had  seen 
before,  and  with  the  motive  of  immediate  profit,  with  no  concern  for 
the  future  or  thought  of  the  permanent  benefit  of  country  and  people,  a 
wasteful  and  profligate  use  of  the  resources  began  and  has  continued. 

The  waters,  at  first  recognized  only  as  aids  to  commerce  in  supplying 
transportation  routes,  were  largely  neglected.  In  time  this  neglect 
began  to  be  noticed,  and  along  with  it  the  destruction  and  approaching 
exhaustion  of  the  forests.  This,  in  turn,  directed  attention  to  the  rapid 
depletion  of  the  coal  and  iron  deposits  and  the  misuse  of  jthe  land. 

The  public  conscience  became  awakened.  Seeing  the  increased  value 
and  noting  the  destructive  consumption  and  waste  of  the  natural 
resources,  men  began  to  realize  that  the  permanent  welfare  of  the 
country  as  well  as  the  prosperity  of  their  offspring  were  at  stake. 

The  newly-awakened  sense  of  duty  found  expression  in  a  call  by  the 
President  upon  the  governors  of  the  States  to  meet  him  in  conference, 
and  in  the  declaration  of  this  conference  at  its  sessions  in  the  White 
House  in  May,  1908.  The  action  of  the  conference  led  to  the  appoint- 


*T° /he  report  proper  here  given  were  appended  the  summaries  of  sections 
and  all  other  papers  constituting  the  national  inventory. 


6 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


ment  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  with  authority  to  col¬ 
lect  information  and  cooperate  with  similar  commissions  appointed  by 
the  States  in  the  great  work  of  conserving  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country. 

Development  of  the  Country. 

In  the  growth  of  the  country  and  gradual  development  of  the  natural 
resources  there  have  been  three  noteworthy  stages.  The  first  stage  was 
that  of  individual  enterprise  for  personal  and  family  benefit.  It  led  to 
the  conquest  of  the  wilderness. 

The  next  stage  was  that  of  collective  enterprise,  either  for  the  benefit 
of  communities  or  for  the  profit  of  individuals  forming  the  communi¬ 
ties.  It  led  to  the  development  of  cities  and  States,  and  too  often  to 
the  growth  of  great  monopolies. 

The  third  stage  is  the  one  we  are  now  entering.  W  ithin  it  the  enter¬ 
prise  is  collective  and  largely  cooperative,  and  should  be  directed 
toward  the  larger  benefit  of  communities,  States,  and  the  people 
generally. 

In  the  first  stage  the  resources  received  little  thought.  In  the  second 
they  were  wastefully  used.  In  the  stage  which  we  are  entering  wise 
and  beneficial  uses  are  essential,  and  the  checking  of  waste  is  absolutely 
demanded. 

Although  the  natural  resources  are  interrelated  they  are  unlike,  and 
each  class  requires  distinct  treatment.  The  land  is  a  fixed  quantity 
which  can  not  be  materially  increased,  though  its  productivity  and 
availability  for  the  uses  of  man  may  be  greatly  augmented ;  the  forests 
are  variable  in  quantity  and  may  be  destroyed  by  fire,  waste,  and  im¬ 
provident  use,  or  protected  and  improved  in  such  way  as  fo  meet  human 
necessities.  Together  the  lands  and  the  forests  are  improvable  re¬ 
sources. 

The  minerals  are  limited  in  quantity  and  can  not  be  increased  or 
improved  by  anything  which  man  may  do.  They  are  expendable 
resources. 

The  fresh  waters  are  limited  in  quantity,  though  the  supply  is  per¬ 
manent.  They  form  a  naturally  renewable  resource  which  man  may  do 
nothing  to  increase,  but  may  do  much  in  the  way  of  conservation  and 
better  utilization. 

The  treatment  applied  to  each  class  should  be  adapted  to  its  own  full¬ 
est  development  and  best  utilization  and  to  those  of  the  other  classes  of 
resources. 

Waste. 

The  waste  which  most  urgently  requires  checking  varies  widely  in 
character  and  amount.  The  most  reprehensible  waste  is  that  of  de- 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


struction,  as  in  forest  fires,  uncontrolled  flow  of  gas  and  oil,  soil  wash, 
and  abandonment  of  coal  in  the  mines.  This  is  attributable,  for  the 
most  part,  to  ignorance,  indifference,  or  false  notions  of  economy,  to 
rectify  which  is  the  business  of  the  people  collectively. 

Nearly  as  reprehensible  is  the  waste  arising  from  misuse,  as  in  the 
consumption  of  fuel  in  furnaces  and  engines  of  low  efficiency,  the  loss 
of  water  in  floods,  the  employment  of  ill-adapted  structural  materials, 
the  growing  of  ill-chosen  crops,  and  the  perpetuation  of  inferior  stocks 
of  plants  and  animals,  all  of  which  may  be  remedied. 

Reprehensible  in  less  degree  is  the  waste  arising  from  nonuse. 
Since  the  utilization  of  any  one  resource  is  necessarily  progressive  and 
dependent  on  social  and  industrial  conditions  and  the  concurrent  devel¬ 
opment  of  other  resources,  nonuse  is  sometimes  unavoidable.  It  be¬ 
comes  reprehensible  when  it  affects  the  common  welfare  and  entails 
future  injury.  Then,  it  should  be  rectified  in  the  general  interest. 

For  the  prevention  of  waste  the  most  effective  means  will  be  found 
in  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge,  from  which  is  sure  to  result 
an  aroused  public  sentiment  demanding  prevention.  The  people  have 
the  matter  in  their  own  hands.  They  may  prevent  or  limit  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  resources  and  restrain  misuse  through  the  enactment  and 
enforcement  of  appropriate  State  and  Federal  laws. 

Life  and  Health. 

At  every  state  in  the  growth  of  our  country,  strong  men  grew 
stronger  through  the  exercise  of  nation  building,  and  their  intelligence 
and  patriotism  grew  with  their  strength.  The  spirit  and  vigor  of  our 
people  are  the  chief  glory  of  the  Republic.  Yet  even  as  we  have  neg¬ 
lected  our  natural  resources,  so  have  we  been  thoughtless  of  life  and 
health.  Too  long  have  we  overlooked  that  grandest  of  our  resources, 
human  life.  Natural  resources  are  of  no  avail  without  men  and  women 
to  develop  them,  and  only  a  strong  and  sound  citizenship  can  make  a 
nation  permanently  great.  We  can  not  too  soon  enter  on  the  duty  of 
conserving  our  chief  source  of  strength  by  the  prevention  of  disease 
and  the  prolongation  of  life. 

Waste  reduced  and  resources  saved  are  the  first  but  not  the  last 
object  of  conservation.  The  material  resources  have  an  additional 
value  when  their  preservation  adds  to  the  beauty  and  habitability  of  the 
land.  Ours  is  a  pleasant  land  in  which  to  dwell.  To  increase  its 
beauty  and  augment  its  fitness  can  not  but  multiply  our  pleasure  in  it 
and  strengthen  the  bonds  of  our  attachment. 

In  the  conservation  of  all  the  resources  of  the  country  the  interest  of 
the  present  and  all  future  generations  is  concerned,  and  in  this  great 


8 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


work — involving  the  welfare  of  the  citizen,  the  family,  the  community, 
the  state,  and  the  nation — our  dual  system  of  government,  state  and 
federal,  should  be  brought  into  harmonious  cooperation  and  collabo¬ 
ration. 

MINERALS. 

The  mineral  production  of  the  United  States  for  1907  exceeded 
$2,000,000,000,  and  contributed  65  per  cent  of  the  total  freight  traffic 
of  the  country.  The  waste  in  the  extraction  and  treatment  of  mineral 
products  during  the  same  year  was  equivalent  to  more  than  $300,- 
000,000. 

The  production  for  1907  included  395,000,000  tons  of  bituminous  and 
85,000,000  tons  of  anthracite  coal,  166,000,000  barrels  of  petroleum, 
45,000,000  tons  of  high-grade  and  11,000,000  tons  of  low-grade  iron 
ore,  2,500,000  tons  of  phosphate  rock,  and  869,000,000  pounds  of  cop¬ 
per.  The  values  of  other  mineral  products  during  the  same  year 
included  clay  products,  $162,000,000;  stone,  $71,000,000;  cement, 
$56,000,000;  natural  gas,  $50,000,000;  gold,  $90,000,000;  silver,  $37,- 
000,000 ;  lead,  $39,000,000,  and  zinc,  $26,000,000. 

The  available  and  easily  accessible  supplies  of  coal  in  the  United 
States  aggregate  approximately  1,400,000,000,000  tons.  At  the  present 
increasing  rate  of  production  this  supply  will  be  so  depleted  as  to 
approach  exhaustion  before  the  middle  of  the  next  century. 

The  known  supply  of  high-grade  iron  ores  in  the  United  States  ap¬ 
proximates  3,840,000,000  tons,  which  at  the  present  increasing  rate  of 
consumption  can  not  be  expected  to  last  beyond  the  middle  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  century.  In  addition  to  this,  there  are  assumed  to  be  59,000,000,000 
tons  of  lower  grade  iron  ores  which  are  not  available  for  use  under 
existing  conditions. 

The  supply  of  stone,  clay,  cement,  lime,  sand,  and  salt  is  ample, 
while  the  stock  of  the  precious  metals  and  of  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
sulphur,  asphalt,  graphite,  quicksilver,  mica,  and  the  rare  metals  can 
not  well  be  estimated,  but  is  clearly  exhaustible  within  one  to  three 
centuries  unless  unexpected  deposits  be  found. 

The  known  supply  of  petroleum  is  estimated  at  15,000,000.000  to 
20,000,000,000  barrels,  distributed  through  six  separate  fields  having 
an  aggregate  area  of  8,900  square  miles.  The  production  is  rapidly 
increasing,  while  the  wastes  and  the  loss  through  misuse  are  enormous. 
The  supply  can  not  be  expected  to  last  beyond  the  middle  of  the  present 
century. 

The  known  natural-gas  fields  aggregate  an  area  of  9.000  square  miles, 
distributed  through  22  States.  Of  the  total  yield  from  these  fields 
•during  1907,  400,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $62,000,000,  were 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


9 


utilized,  while  an  equal  quantity  was  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air. 
The  daily  waste  of  natural  gas — the  most  perfect  known  fuel — is  over 
1,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  or  enough  to  supply  every  city  in  the  United 
States  of  over  100,000  population. 

Phosphate  rock,  used  for  fertilizer,  represents  the  slow  accumulation 
of  organic  matter  during  past  ages.  In  most  countries  it  is  scrupu¬ 
lously  preserved ;  in  this  country  it  is  extensively  exported,  and  largely 
for  this  reason  its  production  is  increasing  rapidly.  The  original 
supply  can  not  long  withstand  the  increasing  demand. 

Consumption  of  Minerals  Increasing. 

The  consumption  of  nearly  all  our  mineral  products  is  increasing  far 
more  rapidly  than  our  population.  In  many  cases  the  waste  is  increas¬ 
ing  more  rapidly  than  the  number  of  our  people.  In  1776  but  a  few 
dozen  pounds  of  iron  were  in  use  by  the  average  family;  now  our 
annual  consumption  is  over  1,200  pounds  per  capita.  In  1812  no  coal 
was  used ;  now  the  consumption  is  over  5  tons  and  the  waste  nearly 
3  tons  per  capita. 

While  the  production  of  coal  is  increasing  enormously,  the  waste  and 
loss  in  mining  are  diminishing.  At  the  beginning  of  our  mineral 
development  the  coal  abandoned  in  the  mine  was  two  or  three  times  the 
amount  taken  out  and  used.  Now  the  mine  waste  averages  little  more 
than  half  the  amount  saved.  The  chief  waste  is  in  imperfect  combus¬ 
tion  in  furnaces  and  fire  boxes.  Steam  engines  utilize  on  the  average 
about  8  per  cent  of  the  thermal  energy  of  the  coal.  Internal-com¬ 
bustion  engines  utilize  less  than  20  per  cent  and  in  electric  lighting  far 
less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  thermal  energy  is  rendered  available. 

With  increasing  industries  new  mineral  resources  become  available 
from  time  to  time.  Some  lignites  and  other  low-grade  coals  are  readily 
gasified  and,  through  the  development  of  internal-combustion  engines, 
check  the  consumption  of  high-grade  coals.  Peat  is  becoming  impor¬ 
tant  ;  it  is  estimated  that  14,000,000,000  tons  are  available  in  the  United 
States.  Its  value  is  enhanced  because  of  distribution  through  States 
generally  remote  from  the  fields  of  coal,  oil,  and  natural  gas. 

The  uses  of  all  our  mineral  resources  are  interdependent.  This  is 
especially  true  of  coal  and  iron,  of  which  neither  can  be  produced  or 
used  without  aid  from  the  other,  and  in  the  production  or  reduction 
of  all  other  minerals  both  coal  and  iron  are  employed.  The  same 
standard  minerals  are  necessary  to  the  development  of  power,  of  which 
the  use  is  increasing  more  rapidly  than  that  of  any  other  commodity. 

The  building  operations  of  the  country  now  aggregate  about 
$1,000,000,000  per  year.  The  direct  and  indirect  losses  from  fire  in 
the  United  States  during  1907  approximated  $450,000,000,  or  one-half 


10 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


the  cost  of  construction.  Of  this  loss  four-fifths,  or  an  average  of 
$1,000,000  per  day,  could  be  prevented,  as  shown  by  comparison  with 
the  standards  of  construction  and  fire  losses  in  the  larger  European 
countries. 

So  far  as  the  ores  are  taken  from  the  mines  and  reduced  to  metals, 
these  resources  are  capitalized ;  but  after  thus  being  changed  to  a  more 
valuable  form  they  should  be  so  used  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the 
loss  by  rust,  electrolytic  action,  and  other  waste. 

There  is  urgent  need  for  greater  safety  to  the  miner.  The  loss  of 
life  through  mine  accidents  is  appalling,  and  preventive  measures  can 
not  be  taken  too  soon. 

The  National  Government  should  exercise  such  control  of  the  min¬ 
eral  fuels  and  phosphate  rocks  now  in  its  possession  as  to  check  waste 
and  prolong  our  supply. 

While  the  distribution  and  quantity  of  most  of  our  important  mineral 
substances  are  known  in  a  general  way,  there  is  imperative  need  for 
further  surveys  and  investigations  and  for  researches  concerning  the 
less-known  minerals. 

LANDS. 

The  total  land  area  of  continental  United  States  is  1,900,000,000 
acres.  Of  this  but  little  more  than  two-fifths  is  in  farms,  and  less 
than  one-half  of  the  farm  area  is  improved  and  made  a  source  of  crop 
production.  We  have  nearly  6,000,000  farms ;  they  average  146  acres 
each.  The  value  of  the  farms  is  nearly  one-fourth  the  wealth  of  the 
United  States.  There  are  more  than  300,000,000  acres  of  public  graz¬ 
ing  land.  The  number  of  persons  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  is 
more  than  10,000,000. 

We  grow  one-fifth  of  the  world’s  wheat  crop,  three-fifths  of  its  cotton 
crop,  and  four-fifths  of  its  corn  crop.  We  plant  nearly  50,000.000  acres 
of  wheat  annually,  with  an  average  yield  of  about  14  bushels  per  acre ; 
100,000,000  acres  of  corn,  yielding  an  average  of  25  bushels  per  acre ; 
and  30,000,000  acres  of  cotton,  yielding  about  12,000,000  bales. 

We  had  on  January  1,  1908,  71,000,000  cattle,  worth  $1,250,000,000; 
54,000,000  sheep,  worth  $211,000,000;  and  56,000,000  swine,  worth 
$339,000,000.  The  census  of  1900  showed  $137,000,000  worth  of 
poultry  in  this  country,  which  produced  in  1899  293,000.000  dozen  eggs. 

There  has  been  a  slight  increase  in  the  average  yield  of  our  great 
staple  farm  products,  but  neither  the  increase  in  acreage  nor  the  yield 
per  acre  has  kept  pace  with  our  increase  in  population.  Within  a  cen- 
tury  we  shall  probably  have  to  feed  three  times  as  many  people  as  now ; 
and  the  main  bulk  of  our  food  supply  must  be  grown  on  our  own  soil. 

The  area  of  cultivated  land  may  possibly  be  doubled.  In  addition  to 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


II 


the  land  awaiting  the  plow,  75,000,000  acres  of  swamp  land  can  be 
reclaimed,  40,000,000  acres  of  desert  land  irrigated,  and  millions  of 
acres  of  brush  and  wooded  land  cleared.  Our  population  will  increase 
continuously,  but  there  is  a  definite  limit  to  the  increase  of  our  culti¬ 
vated  acreage.  Hence  we  must  greatly  increase  the  yield  per  acre. 
The  average  yield  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  less  than  14  bushels 
per  acre,  in  Germany  28  bushels,  and  in  England  32  bushels.  We  get 
30  bushels  of  oats  per  acre,  England  nearly  45,  and  Germany  more  than 
47.  Our  soils  are  fertile,  but  our  mode  of  farming  neither  conserves 
the  soil  nor  secures  full  crop  returns.  Soil  fertility  need  not  be  dimin¬ 
ished,  but  may  be  increased.  The  large  yields  now  obtained  from 
farms  in  Europe  which  have  been  cultivated  for  a  thousand  years  prove 
this  conclusively.  Proper  management  will  double  our  average  yield 
per  acre.  The  United  States  can  grow  the  farm  products  needed  by  a 
population  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  our  country  now  contains. 

Unnecessary  Farm  Losses. 

The  greatest  unnecessary  loss  of  our  soil  is  preventable  erosion. 
Second  only  to  this  is  the  waste,  nonuse,  and  misuse  of  fertilizer  de¬ 
rived  from  animals  and  men. 

The  losses  to  farm  products  due  to  injurious  mammals  is  estimated 
at  $130,000,000  annually;  the  loss  through  plant  diseases  reaches  sev¬ 
eral  hundred  million  dollars ;  and  the  loss  through  insects  is  reckoned 
at  $659,000,000.  The  damage  by  birds  is  balanced  by  their  beneficent 
work  in  destroying  noxious  insects.  Losses  due  to  the  elements  are 
large,  but  no  estimate  has  been  made  of  them.  Losses  to  live  stock 
from  these  causes  are  diminishing  because  of  protection  and  feeding 
during  winter.  The  annual  losses  from  disease  among  domestic  ani¬ 
mals  are:  Horses,  1.8  per  cent;  cattle,  2  per  cent;  sheep,  2.2  per  cent; 
and  swine,  5.1  per  cent.  Most  of  these  farm  losses  are  preventable. 

There  is  a  tendency  toward  consolidation  of  farm  lands.  The  esti¬ 
mated  area  of  abandoned  farms  is  16,000  square  miles,  or  about  3  per 
cent  of  the  improved  land.  The  causes  of  abandonment  differ  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  the  country.  Where  most  prevalent,  it  is  caused  princi¬ 
pally  bv  erosion  and  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

The  product  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  has  an  annual  value 
of  $57,000,000.  Fish  culture  is  carried  on  by  the  nation  and  the  States 
on  an  enormous  scale.  Most  of  the  more  important  food  species  are 
propagated,  and  several  species  are  maintained  in  that  way.  Fish  from 
forest  waters  furnish  $21,000,000  worth  of  food  yearly,  a  supply  de¬ 
pendent  on  the  preservation  of  the  forests. 

Our  wild  game  and  fur-bearing  animals  have  been  largely  extermi- 


12 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


nated.  To  prevent  their  complete  extinction  the  States  and  the  United 
States  have  taken  in  hand  their  protection,  and  their  numbers  are  now 
increasing.  Forest  game  yields  over  $10,000,000  worth  of  food  each 
year. 

With  game  birds  the  story  is  much  the  same — wanton  destruction 
until  the  number  has  been  greatly  reduced,  followed  in  recent  years  by 
wise  protection,  which  in  some  cases  allows  the  remnant  to  survive  and 
even  to  increase. 

Each  citizen  of  the  United  States  owns  an  equal  undivided  interest 
in  about  375,000,000  acres  of  public  lands,  exclusive  of  Alaska  and  the 
insular  possessions.  Besides  this  there  are  about  235,000,000  acres  of 
national  forests,  national  parks,  and  other  lands  devoted  to  public  use. 

Need  of  a  Definite  Land  Policy. 

Good  business  sense  demands  that  a  definite  land  policy  be  formu¬ 
lated.  The  National  Conservation  Commission  believes  that  the  fol¬ 
lowing  will  serve  as  a  basis  therefor : 

1.  Every  part  of  the  public  lands  should  be  devoted  to  the  use  which 
will  best  subserve  the  interests  of  the  whole  people. 

2.  The  classification  of  all  public  lands  is  necessary  for  their  admin¬ 
istration  in  the  interests  of  the  people. 

3.  The  timber,  the  minerals,  and  the  surface  of  the  public  lands 
should  be  disposed  of  separately. 

4.  Public  lands  more  valuable  for  conserving  water  supply,  timber, 
and  natural  beauties  or  wonders  than  for  agriculture  should  be  held  for 
the  use  of  the  people  from  all  except  mineral  entry. 

5.  Title  to  the  surface  of  the  remaining  nonmineral  public  lands 
should  be  granted  only  to  actual  home  makers. 

6.  Pending  the  transfer  of  title  to  the  remaining  public  lands  they 
should  be  administered  by  the  Government  and  their  use  should  be 
allowed  in  a  way  to  prevent  or  control  waste  and  monopoly. 

The  present  public  land  laws  as  a  whole  do  not  subserve  the  best 
interests  of  the  nation.  They  should  be  modified  so  far  as  may  be 
required  to  bring  them  into  conformity  with  the  foregoing  outline  of 
policy. 

FORESTS. 

Next  to  our  need  of  food  and  water  comes  our  need  of  timber. 

Our  industries  which  subsist  wholly  or  mainly  upon  wood  pay  the 
wages  of  more  than  1,500,000  men  and  women. 

Forests  not  only  grow  timber,  but  they  hold  the  soil  and  they  con¬ 
serve  the  streams.  They  abate  the  wind  and  give  protection  from  ex- 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4  1 3 

cessive  heat  and  cold.  Woodlands  make  for  the  fiber,  health,  and 
happiness  of  the  citizen  and  the  nation. 

Our  forests  now  cover  550,000,000  acres,  or  about  one-fourth  of  the 
United  States.  The  original  forests  covered  not  less  than  850,000,000 
acres. 

Forests  publicly  owned  cover  one-fourth  of  the  total  forest  area  and 
contain  one-fifth  of  all  our  standing  timber.  Forests  privately  owned 
cover  three-fourths  of  the  area  and  contain  four-fifths  of  the  standing 
timber.  The  timber  privately  owned  is  not  only  four  times  that  pub¬ 
licly  owned,  but  is  generally  more  valuable. 

Forestry  is  now  practiced  on  70  per  cent  of  the  forests  publicly 
owned  and  on  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  forests  privately  owned,  or 
on  only  18  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  forests. 

The  yearly  growth  of  wood  in  our  forests  does  not  average  more 
than  12  cubic  feet  per  acre.  This  gives  a  total  yearly  growth  of  less 
than  7,000,000,000  cubic  feet. 

What  We  Have ,  Use ,  and  Waste. 

We  have  200,000,000  acres  of  mature  forests,  in  which  yearly  growth 
is  .balanced  by  decay ;  250,000,000  acres  partly  cut  over  or  burned  over, 
but  restocking  naturally  with  enough  young  growth  to  produce  a  mer¬ 
chantable  crop,  and  100,000,000  acres  cut  over  and  burned  over,  upon 
which  young  growth  is  lacking  or  too  scanty  to  make  merchantable 
timber. 

We  take  from  our  forests  yearly,  including  waste  in  logging  and  in 
manufacture  23,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  wood.  We  use  each  year 
100,000,000  cords  of  firewood;  40,000,000,000  feet  of  lumber;  more 
than  1,000,000,000  posts,  poles,  and  fence  rails;  118,000,000  hewn  ties; 
1,500,000,000  staves;  over  133,000,000  sets  of  heading;  nearly  500,- 
000,000  barrel  hoops;  3,000,000  cords  of  native  pulp  wood;  165,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  round  mine  timbers,  and  1,250,000  cords  of  wood  for 
distillation. 

Since  1870  forest  fires  have  destroyed  a  yearly  average  of  50  lives 
and  $50,000,000  worth  of  timber.  Not  less  than  50,000,000  acres  of 
forest  is  burned  over  yearly.  The  young  growth  destroyed  by  fire  is 
worth  far  more  than  the  merchantable  timber  burned. 

One-fourth  of  the  standing  timber  is  lost  in  logging.  The  boxing  of 
long-leaf  pine  for  turpentine  has  destroyed  one-fifth  of  the  forests 
worked.  The  loss  in  the  mill  is  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the 
timber  sawed.  The  loss  of  mill  product  in  seasoning  and  fitting  for  use 
is  from  one-seventh  to  one-fourth. 


14 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Of  each  1,000  feet  which  stood  in  the  forest,  an  average  of  only  320 
feet  of  lumber  is  used. 

We  take  from  our  forests  each  year,  not  counting  the  loss  by  fire, 
three  and  a  half  times  their  yearly  growth.  We  take  40  cubic  feet  per 
acre  for  each  12  cubic  feet  grown;  we  take  260  cubic  feet  per  capita, 
while  Germany  uses  37  and  France  25  cubic  feet. 

We  tax  our  forests  under  the  general  property  tax,  a  method  aban¬ 
doned  long  ago  by  every  other  great  nation.  Present  tax  laws  prevent 
reforestation  of  cut-over  land  and  the  perpetuation  of  existing  forests 
by  use. 

Great  damage  is  done  to  standing  timber  by  injurious  forest  insects. 
Much  of  this  damage  can  be  prevented  at  small  expense. 

To  protect  our  farms  from  wind  and  to  reforest  land  best  suited  for 
forest  growth  will  require  tree  planting  on  an  area  larger  than  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Ohio,  and  West  Virginia  combined.  Lands  so  far  success¬ 
fully  planted  make  a  total  area  smaller  than  Rhode  Island ;  and  year  by 
year,  through  careless  cutting  and  fires,  we  lower  the  capacity  of 
existing  forests  to  produce  their  like  again,  or  else  totally  destroy  them. 

In  spite  of  substitutes  we  shall  always  need  much  wood.  So  far  our 
use  of  it  has  steadily  increased.  The  condition  of  the  world’s  supply 
of  timber  makes  us  already  dependent  upon  what  we  produce.  We 
send  out  of  our  country  one  and  a  half  times  as  much  timber  as  we 
bring  in.  Except  for  finishing  woods,  relatively  small  in  amount,  we 
must  grow  our  own  supply  or  go  without.  Until  we  pay  for  our 
lumber  what  it  costs  to  grow  it,  as  well  as  what  it  costs  to  log  and 
saw,  the  price  will  continue  to  rise. 

Preservation  by  Use. 

The  preservation  by  use,  under  the  methods  of  practical  forestry,  of 
all  public  forest  lands,  either  in  State  or  Federal  ownership,  is  essential 
to  the  permanent  public  welfare.  In  many  forest  States  the  acquire- 
'  ment  of  additional  forest  lands  as  State  forests  is  necessary  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  States  themselves. 

The  conservation  of  our  mountain  forests,  as  in  the  Appalachian 
system,  is  a  national  necessity.  These  forests  are  required  to  aid  in  the 
regulation  of  streams  used  for  navigation  and  other  purposes.  The 
conservation  of  these  forests  is  impracticable  through  private  enterprise 
alone,  by  any  State  alone,  or  by  the  Federal  Government  alone. 
Effective  and  immediate  cooperation  between  these  three  agencies  is 
essential.  Federal  ownership  of  limited  protective  areas  upon  impor¬ 
tant  watersheds,  effective  State  fire  patrol,  and  the  cooperation  of 
private  forest  owners  are  all  required. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


15 


The  true  remedy  for  unwise  tax  laws  lies  not  in  laxity  in  their  appli¬ 
cation  nor  in  special  exemption,  but  in  a  change  in  the  method  of  tax¬ 
ation.  An  annual  tax  upon  the  land  itself,  exclusive  of  the  value  of  the 
timber,  and  a  tax  upon  the  timber  when  cut,  is  well  adapted  to  actual 
conditions  of  forest  investment,  and  is  practicable  and  certain.  It  is  far 
better  that  forest  land  should  pay  a  moderate  tax  permanently  than 
that  it  should  pay  an  excessive  revenue  temporarily  and  then  cease  to 
pay  at  all. 

Forests  in  private  ownership  can  not  be  conserved  unless  they  are 
protected  from  fire.  We  need  good  fire  laws,  well  enforced.  Fire 
control  is  impossible  without  an  adequate  force  of  men  whose  sole 
duty  is  fire  patrol  during  the  dangerous  season. 

Need  of  Education. 

% 

The  conservative  use  of  the  forest  and  of  timber  by  American 
citizens  will  not  be  general  until  they  learn  how  to  practice  forestry. 
Through  a  vigorous  national  campaign  in  education,  forestry  has  taken 
root  in  the  great  body  of  American  citizenship.  The  basis  already 
exists  upon  which  to  build  a  structure  of  forest  conservation  which 
will  endure.  This  needs  the  definite  commitment  of  State  governments 
and  the  Federal  Government  to  their  inherent  duty  of  teaching  the 
people  how  to  care  for  their  forests.  The  final  responsibility  both  for 
investigative  work  in  forestry  and  for  making  its  results  known  rests 
upon  the  States  and  upon  the  nation. 

By  reasonable  thrift,  we  can  produce  a  constant  timber  supply  beyond 
our  present  need,  and  with  it  conserve  the  usefulness  of  our  streams 
for  irrigation,  water  supply,  navigation,  and  power. 

Under  right  management,  our  forests  will  yield  over  four  times  as 
much  as  now.  We  can  reduce  waste  in  the  woods  and  in  the  mill  at 
least  one-third,  with  present  as  well  as  future  profit.  We  can  per¬ 
petuate  the  naval  stores  industry.  Preservative  treatment  will  reduce 
by  one-fifth  the  quantity  of  timber  used  in  the  water  or  in  the  ground. 
We  can  practically  stop  forest  fires  at  a  cost  yearly  of  one-fifth  the 
value  of  the  merchantable  timber  burned. 

We  shall  suffer  for  timber  to  meet  our  needs  until  our  forests  have 
had  time  to  grow  again.  But  if  we  act  vigorously,  and  at  once,  we 
shall  escape  permanent  timber  scarcity. 

WATERS. 

The  sole  source  of  our  fresh  water  is  rainfall,  including  snow.  From 
this  source  all  running,  standing,  and  ground  waters  are  derived.  The 
habitability  of  the  country  depends  on  these  waters.  Our  mean  annual 
rainfall  is  about  30  inches:  the  quantity  about  215,000.000,000.000 
cubic  feet  per  year,  equivalent  to  ten  Mississippi  rivers. 


1 6  NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 

Of  the  total  rainfall,  over  half  is  evaporated ;  about  a  third  flows 
into  the  sea ;  the  remaining  sixth  is  either  consumed  or  absorbed. 
These  portions  are  sometimes  called,  respectively,  the  fly-off,  the  run¬ 
off,  and  the  cut-off.  They  are  partly  interchangeable.  About  a  third 
of  the  run-off,  or  a  tenth  of  the  entire  rainfall,  passes  through  the 
Mississippi.  The  run-off  is  increasing  with  deforestation  and  cul¬ 
tivation. 

Of  the  70,000,000,000,000  cubic  feet  annually  flowing  into  the  sea, 
less  than  1  per  cent  is  restrained  and  utilized  for  municipal  and  com¬ 
munity  supply;  less  than  2  per  cent  (or  some  10  per  cent  of  that  in  the 
arid  and  semiarid  regions)  is  used  for  irrigation;  perhaps  5  per  cent  is 
used  for  navigation,  and  less  than  5  per  cent  for  power. 

For  municipal  and  community  water  supply  there  are  protected 
catchment  areas  aggregating  over  600,000  acres,  and  over  $250,000,000 
are  invested  in  waterworks,  with  nearly  as  much  more  in  the  appur¬ 
tenant  catchment  areas  and  other  lands.  The  population  so  sup¬ 
plied  approaches  10,000,000,  and  the  annual  consumption  is  about 
37,500,000,000  cubic  feet.  The  better  managed  systems  protect  the 
catchment  areas  by  forests  and  grass ;  the  water  is  controlled  and  the 
storm  product  used,  but  there  is  large  waste  after  the  water  enters 
the  mains. 

For  irrigation  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  $200,000,000  invested  in 
dams,  ditches,  reservoirs,  and  other  works  for  the  partial  control  of 
the  waters;  and  that  1,500,000,000,000  cubic  feet  are  annually  diverted 
to  irrigable  lands,  aggregating  some  20,000  square  tniles.  Except  in 
some  cases  through  forestry,  few  catchment  areas  are  controlled,  and 
few  reservoirs  are  large  enough  to  hold  the  storm  waters.  The  waste 
in  the  public  and  private  projects  exceeds  60  per  cent,  while  no  more 
than  25  per  cent  of  the  water  actually  available  for  irrigation  of  the 
arid  lands  is  restrained  and  diverted. 

Navigation  and  Power. 

There  are  in  continental  United  States  282  streams  navigated  for  an 
aggregate  of  26,115  miles,  and  as  much  more  navigable  if  improved. 
There  are  also  45  canals,  aggregating  2,189  miles,  besides  numerous 
abandoned  canals.  Except  through  forestry  in  recent  years,  together 
with  a  few  reservoirs  and  canal  locks  and  movable  dams,  there  has 
been  little  effort  to  control  headwaters  or  catchment  areas  in  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  navigation,  and  none  of  our  rivers  are  navigated  to  more  than  a 
small  fraction  even  of  their  effective  low-water  capacity. 

The  water  power  now  in  use  is  5,250,000  horsepower;  the  amount 
running  over  Government  dams  and  not  used  is  about  1,400,000  horse¬ 
power  ;  the  amount  reasonably  available  equals  or  exceeds  the  entire 
mechanical  power  now  in  use,  or  enough  to  operate  every  mill,  drive 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


17 


every  spindle,  propel  every  train  and  boat,  and  light  every  city,  town, 
and  village  in  the  country.  While  the  utilization  of  water  power  ranks 
among  our  most  recent  and  most  rapid  industrial  developments,  little 
effort  has  been  made  to  control  catchment  areas  or  storm  waters  in  any 
large  way  for  power,  though  most  plants  effect  local  control  through 
reservoirs  and  other  works.  Nearly  all  the  freshet  and  flood  water 
runs  to  waste,  and  the  low  waters  which  limit  the  efficiency  of  power 
plants  are  increasing  in  frequency  and  duration  with  the  increasing 
flood  run-off. 

The  practical  utility  of  streams  for  both  navigation  and  power  is 
measured  by  the  effective  low-water  stage.  The  volume  carried  when 
the  streams  rise  above  this  state  is  largely  wasted  and  often  does 
serious  damage.  The  direct  yearly  damage  by  floods  since  1900  has 
increased  steadily  from  $45,000,000  to  over  $238,000,000.  The  indi¬ 
rect  loss  through  depreciation  of  property  is  great,  while  a  large  loss 
arises  in  impeded  traffic  through  navigation  and  terminal  transfers. 

The  freshets  are  attended  by  destructive  soil  erosion.  The  soil  mat¬ 
ter  annually  carried  into  lower  rivers  and  harbors  or  into  the  sea  is 
computed  at  780,000,000  tons.  Soil  wash  reduces  by  10  or  20  per  cent 
the  productivity  of  upland  farms  and  increases  channel  cutting  and  bar 
building  in  the  rivers.  The  annual  loss  to  the  farms  alone  is  fully 
$500,000,000,  and  large  losses  follow  the  fouling  of  the  waters  and  the 
diminished  navigability  of  the  streams. 

Through  imperfect  control  of  the  running  waters  lowlands  are  tem¬ 
porarily  or  permanently  flooded.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in 
mainland  United  States  about  75,000,000  acres  of  overflow  and  swamp 
lands  requiring  drainage;  that  by  systematic  operation  these  can  be 
drained  at  moderate  expense,  and  that  they  would  then  be  worth  two 
or  three  times  the  present  value  and  cost  of  drainage,  and  would  fur¬ 
nish  homes  for  10,000,000  people. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  quantity  of  fresh  water  stored  in  lakes  and 
ponds  (including  the  American  portion  of  the  Great  Takes)  is  about 
600,000,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  equivalent  to  three  years’  rainfall  or 
eight  years  run-off.  Some  6,000,000  of  our  people  draw  their  water 
supply  from  lakes. 

Basis  of  Industries. 

A  large  part  of  that  half  of  the  annual  rainfall  not  evaporated  lodges 
temporarily  in  the  soil  and  earth.  It  is  estimated  that  the  ground 
water  to  the  depth  of  100  feet  averages  16J  per  cent  of  the  earth- 
volume,  or  over  1,400,000,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  equivalent  to  seven 
years  rainfall  or  twenty  years’  run-off.  This  subsurface  reservoir  is 
the  essential  basis  of  agriculture  and  other  industries  and  is  the  chief 
natural  resource  of  the  country.  It  sustains  forests  and  all  other  crops 


2— cc 


1 8  NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 

and  supplies  the  perennial  springs  and  streams  and  wells  used  by  four- 
fifths  of  our  population  and  nearly  all  our  domestic  animals.  Its  quan¬ 
tity  is  diminished  by  the  increased  run-off  due  to  deforestation  and  in¬ 
judicious  farming.  Although  the  volume  of  the  available  ground 
water  is  subject  to  control  by  suitable  treatment  of  the  surface,  little 
effort  has  been  made  to  retain  or  increase  it,  and  it  is  probable  that 
fully  io  per  cent  of  this  rich  resource  has  been  wasted  since  settlement 
began.  The  water  of  the  strata  below  ioo  feet  supplies  artesian  and 
deep  wells,  large  springs,  and  thermal  and  mineral  waters.  It  can  be 
controlled  only  through  the  subsurface  reservoir. 

Of  the  35,000,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  cut-off,  the  chief  share  is 
utilized  by  natural  processes  or  by  agriculture  and  related  industries. 
On  an  average  the  plant  tissue  of  annual  growths  is  three-fourths  and 
of  perennial  growths  three-eighths  water ;  of  human  and  stock  food 
over  80  per  cent  is  water,  and  in  animal  tissue  the  ratio  is  about  the 
same ;  and  since  water  is  the  medium  for  organic  circulation,  the  plants 
and  animals  of  the  country  yearly  require  an  amount  many  times  ex¬ 
ceeding  their  aggregate  volume.  Even  in  the  more  humid  sections  of 
the  country  the  productivity  of  the  soil  and  the  possible  human  popula¬ 
tion  would  be  materially  increased  by  a  greater  rainfall,  leaving  a 
larger  margin  for  organic  and  other  chemical  uses.  Except  through 
agriculture  and  forestry  little  general  effort  is  made  to  control  the  an¬ 
nual  cut-off,  although  some  farmers  in  arid  regions  claim  to  double  or 
triple  the  crop  from  given  soil  by  supplying  water  just  when  needed 
and  withholding  it  when  not  required. 

Water  is  like  other  resources  in  that  its  quantity  is  limited.  It  dif¬ 
fers  from  such  mineral  resources  as  coal  and  iron,  which  once  used  are 
gone  forever,  in  that  the  supply  is  perpetual,  and  it  differs  from  such 
resources  as  soils  and  forests,  which  are  capable  of  renewal  or  im¬ 
provement,  in  that  it  can  not  be  augmented  in  quantity,  though  like  all 
other  resources  it  can  be  better  utilized. 

Need  of  Comprehensive  Plans. 

It  is  now  recognized  by  statesmen  and  experts  that  navigation  is 
interdependent  with  other  uses  of  the  streams;  that  each  stream  is 
essentially  a  unit  from  its  source  to  the  sea ;  and  that  the  benefits  of  a 
comprehensive  system  of  waterway  improvement  will  extend  to  all  the 
people  in  the  several  sections  and  States  of  the  country. 

It  is  also  recognized,  through  the  unanimous  declaration  of  the  gov- 
'  ernors  of  the  States  and  Territories  adopted  in  conference  with  the 
leading  jurists  and  statesmen  and  experts  of  the  country,  that  in  the 
use  of  the  natural  resources  the  independent  States  are  interdependent, 
and  bound  together  by  ties  of  mutual  benefits,  responsibilities,  and 
duties. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


19 


It  has  recently  been  declared  by  a  majority  of  our  leading  statesmen 
that  it  is  an  imperative  duty  to  enter  upon  a  systematic  improvement, 
on  a  large  and  comprehensive  plan,  just  to  all  portions  of  the  country, 
of  the  waterways  and  harbors  and  great  lakes,  whose  natural  adapta¬ 
bility  to  the  increasing  traffic  of  the  land  is  one  of  the  greatest  gifts  of  a 
benign  Providence,  while  the  minority  indorsed  the  movement  for  con¬ 
trol  of  the  waterways  still  more  specifically  and  in  equally  emphatic 
terms. 

Within  recent  months  it  has  been  recognized  and  demanded  by  the 
people,  through  many  thousand  delegates  from  all  States  assembled  in 
convention  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  that  the  waterways 
should  and  must  be  improved  promptly  and  effectively  as  a  means  of 
maintaining  national  prosperity. 

The  first  requisite  for  waterway  improvement  is  the  control  of  the 
waters  in  such  manner  as  to  reduce  floods  and  regulate  the  regimen  of 
the  navigable  rivers.  The  second  requisite  is  development  of  terminals 
and  connections  in  such  manner  as  to  regulate  commerce. 

In  considering  the  uses  and  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  waters, 
the  paramount  use  should  be  water  supply ;  next  should  follow  naviga¬ 
tion  in  humid  regions  and  irrigation  in  arid  regions.  The  development 
of  power  on  the  navigable  and  source  streams  should  be  coordinated 
with  the  primary  and  secondary  uses  of  the  waters.  Other  things 
equal,  the  development  of  power  should  be  encouraged,  not  only  to 
reduce  the  drain  on  other  resources,  but  because  properly  designed 
reservoirs  and  power  plants  retard  the  run-off  and  so  aid  in  the  control 
of  the  streams  for  navigation  and  other  uses. 

Broad  plans  should  be  adopted  providing  for  a  system  of  waterway 
improvement  extending  to  all  uses  of  the  waters  and  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  their  control,  including  the  clarification  of  the  water  and 
abatement  of  floods  for  the  benefit  of  navigation ;  the  extension  of  irri¬ 
gation;  the  development  and  application  of  power;  the  prevention  of 
soil  wash;  the  purification  of  streams  for  water  supply;  and  the  drain¬ 
age  and  utilization  of  the  waters  of  swamp  and  overflow  lands. 

To  promote  and  perfect  these  plans  scientific  investigations,  surveys, 
and  measurements  should  be  continued  and  extended,  especially  the 
more  accurate  determination  of  rainfall  and  evaporation,  the  investiga¬ 
tion  and  measurement  of  ground  water,  the  gauging  of  streams  and 
determination  of  sediment,  and  topographic  surveys  of  catchment  areas 
and  sites  available  for  control  of  the  waters  for  navigation  and  related 
purposes. 

NATIONAL  EFFICIENCY. 

Since  the  greatest  of  our  national  assets  is  the  health  and  vigor  of 
the  American  people,  our  efficiency  must  depend  on  national  vitality 


20 


NATIONAL,  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


even  more  than  on  the  resources  of  the  minerals,  lands,  forests,  and 
waters. 

The  average  length  of  human  life  in  different  countries  varies  from 
less  than  twenty-five  to  more  than  fifty  years.  This  span  of  life  is 
increasing  wherever  sanitary  science  and  preventive  medicine  are  ap¬ 
plied.  It  may  be  greatly  extended. 

Our  annual  mortality  from  tuberculosis  is  about  150,000.  Stopping 
three-fourths  of  the  loss  of  life  from  this  cause,  and  from  typhoid  and 
other  prevalent  and  preventable  diseases,  would  increase  our  average 
length  of  life  over  fifteen  years. 

There  are  constantly  about  3,000,000  persons  seriously  ill  in  the 
United  States,  of  whom  500,000  are  consumptives.  More  than  half 
this  illness  is  preventable. 

If  we  count  the  value  of  each  life  lost  at  only  $1,700  and  reckon  the 
average  earning  lost  by  illness  as  $700  per  year  for  grown  men,  we  find 
that  the  economic  gain  from  mitigation  of  preventable  disease  in  the 
United  States  would  exceed  $1,500,000,000  a  year.  In  addition,  we 
would  decrease  suffering  and  increase  happiness  and  contentment 
among  the  people.  This  gain,  or  the  lengthening  and  strengthening 
of  life  which  it  measures,  can  be  secured  through  medical  investigation 
and  practice,  school  and  factory  hygiene,  restriction  of  labor  by  women 
and  children,  the  education  of  the  people  in  both  public  and  private 
hygiene,  and  through  improving  the  efficiency  of  our  health  service, 
municipal,  state,  and  national.  The  National  Government  has  now 
several  agencies  exercising  health  functions  which  only  need  to  be 
concentrated  to  become  coordinated  parts  of  a  greater  health  service 
worthy  of  the  nation. 

The  inventory  of  our  natural  resources  made  by  your  commission, 
with  the  vigorous  aid  of  all  federal  agencies  concerned,  of  many  States, 
and  of  a  great  number  of  associated  and  individual  cooperators,  fur¬ 
nishes  a  safe  basis  for  general  conclusions  as  to  what  we  have,  what 
we  use  and  waste,  and  what  may  be  the  possible  saving.  But  for  none 
of  the  great  resources  of  the  farm,  the  mine,  the  forest,  and  the  stream 
do  we  yet  possess  knowledge  definite  or  wide  enough  to  insure  methods 
of  use  which  will  best  conserve  them. 

More  Complete  Inventory  Needed. 

In  order  to  conserve  a  natural  resource,  wTe  must  know  what  that 
resource  is  by  taking  stock  of  what  we  have.  We  greatly  need  a  more 
complete  inventory  of  our  natural  resources ;  and  this  can  not  be  made 
except  through  the  active  cooperation  of  the  States  with  the  nation. 

The  permanent  welfare  of  the  nation  demands  that  its  natural  re¬ 
sources  be  conserved  by  proper  use.  To  this  end  the  States  and  the 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


21 


nation  can  do  much  by  legislation  and  example.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  these  resources  is  in  private  hands.  Private  ownership  of  nat¬ 
ural  resources  is  a  public  trust;  they  should  be  administered  in  the 
interests  of  the  people  as  a  whole.  The  States  and  nation  should  lead 
rather  than  follow  in  the  conservative  and  efficient  use  of  property 
under  their  immediate  control.  But  their  first  duty  is  to  gather  and 
distribute  a  knowledge  of  our  natural  resources  and  of  the  means  neces¬ 
sary  to  insure  their  use  and  conservation,  to  impress  the  body  of  the 
people  with  the  great  importance  of  the  duty,  and  to  promote  the  co¬ 
operation  of  all.  No  agency,  state,  federal,  corporate,  or  private,  can 
do  the  work  alone. 

Finally,  the  conservation  of  our  resources  is  an  immediate  and  vital 
concern.  Our  welfare  depends  on  conservation.  The  pressing  need  is 
for  a  general  plan  under  which  citizens,  States,  and  nation  may  unite 
in  an  effort  to  achieve  this  great  end.  The  lack  of  cooperation  between 
the  States  themselves,  between  the  States  and  the  nation,  and  between 
the  agencies  of  the  National  Government,  is  a  potent  cause  of  the  neg¬ 
lect  of  conservation  among  the  people.  An  organization  through 
which  all  agencies,  state,  national,  municipal,  associate,  and  individual, 
may  unite  in  a  common  effort  to  conserve  the  foundations  of  our  pros¬ 
perity  is  indispensable  to  the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  nation.  To 
that  end  the  immediate  creation  of  a  national  agency  is  essential.  Many 
States  and  associations  of  citizens  have  taken  action  by  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  permanent  conservation  commissions.  It  remains  for  the  na¬ 
tion  to  do  .likewise,  in  order  that  the  States  and  the  nation,  associations 
and  individuals,  may  join  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  purpose. 

Accompanying  this  report,  and  transmitted  as  a  part  thereof,  are 
detailed  statements  by  the  secretaries  of  the  several  sections,  and  many 
papers  and  illustrations  prepared  by  experts  at  the  request  of  your 
commission.* 


Attest : 

Thomas  R.  Shipp, 

Secretary  to  the  Commission. 
December  7,  1908. 


Gifford  Pinchot,  Chairman. 
W  J  McGee, 

Secretary ,  Section  of  Waters. 
Overton  W.  Price, 

Secretary ,  Section  of  Forests. 
George  W.  Woodruff, 

Secretary,  Section  of  Lands. 
J.  A.  Holmes, 

Secretary,  Section  of  Minerals . 


*These  papers,  not  included  in  this  bulletin,  constitute  the  inventory  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  United  States  made  by  the  National  Conservation 
Commission. 


JOINT  CONSERVATION  CONFERENCE. 


The  report  of  the  Commission  was  presented  to  the  Joint  Conserva¬ 
tion  Conference,  in  Washington,  December  8-n,  at  which  were  present 
Governors  of  twenty  States  and  Territories,  representatives  of  twenty- 
two  State  Conservation  Commissions,  and  the  Presidents,  Conservation 
Committees,  or  other  representatives  of  sixty  of  the  national  organiza¬ 
tions  represented  at  the  White  House  Conference,  and  others  which  are 
cooperating  with  the  National  Commission.  Supplementing  the  report, 
the  summaries  of  the  four  sections  of  the  Commission — Waters,  For¬ 
ests,  Lands,  and  Minerals — were  presented  and  were  thoroughly  dis¬ 
cussed  by  the  Governors  and  other  conferees.  On  motion,  a  Commit¬ 
tee  on  Resolutions  was  authorized  and  the  Chair  appointed  on  the 
committee  the  Governors,  Ex-Governors,  and  Governors-elect  who 
were  present  at  the  Conference.  The  committee  united  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  resolutions,  known  as  a  Supplementary  Report  by  the  Joint  Con¬ 
ference  : 

SUPPLEMENTARY  REPORT. 

This  Joint  Conservation  Conference  in  session  assembled  in  the  citv 
of  Washington,  on  this  tenth  day  of  December,  in  the  year  1908, 
representing  the  several  States  and  Territories  of  the  United  States 
through  Governors  of  States,  State  Conservation  Commissions,  dele¬ 
gates,  and  representatives  of  State  and  National  organizations  dealing 
with  natural  resources,  does  hereby  resolve  and  declare : 

Having  heard  the  report  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission 
read,  and  having  fully  deliberated  thereon,  we  hereby  indorse  the  said 
report  as  a  wise,  just,  and  patriotic  statement  of  the  resources  of  the 
nation ;  of  the  thoughtless  and  profligate  manner  in  which  some  of  these 
resources  have  been  and  arc  being  wasted ;  and  of  the  urgent  need 
for  their  conservation  in  the  interests  of  this  and  future  generations, 
to  the  end  that  the  prosperity  and  perpetuity  of  the  nation  may  be 
assured. 

We  especially  approve  of  the  principle  of  cooperation  among  the 
States  and  between  these  and  the  Federal  Government  laid  down  in 
that  report  and  in  the  earlier  report  of  the  Inland  Waterways  Com¬ 
mission,  and  urge  boih  State  and  Federal  legislatures  to  enact  such 
laws  as  may  be  necessary  to  extend  and  apply  such  cooperation  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  use  and  conservation  of  our  resources. 

We  especially  commend  and  urge  the  adoption  of  the  policy  of 
separate  disposal  of  the  surface  rights,  timber  rights,  and  mineral 
rights  on  the  remaining  public  lands  of  the  United  States;  and  we 


23 


24 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


approve  the  disposal  of  mineral  rights  by  lease  only,  and  the  disposal 
of  timber  rights  only  under  conditions  ensuring  proper  cutting  and 
logging  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  growing  timber  and  the  water¬ 
sheds  and  headwaters  of  streams  used  for  navigation  and  other  inter¬ 
state  purposes. 

We  also  especially  approve  and  indorse  the  proposition  that  all  the 
uses  of  the  waters  and  all  portions  of  each  waterway  should  be  treated 
as  interrelated ;  and  we  emphatically  urge  prompt  and  effective  legisla¬ 
tion  providing  for  the  immediate  and  proper  development  of  the  water¬ 
ways  of  the  country  for  navigation,  water  supply,  and  other  interstate 
uses,  preferably  by  direct  Federal  appropriations;  otherwise  by  the 
issue  of  bonds. 

Fully  approving  the  policy  of  improving  the  waterways  of  the 
country  for  navigation  and  other  interstate  uses  of  the  waters,  we  urge 
the  prompt  adoption  of  the  broad  plan  recommended  by  the  Inland 
Waterways  Commission  for  waterway  development  under  an  executive 
board  or  commission  appointed  by  and  acting  under  the  direction  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States. 

Approving  those  portions  of  the  report  pointing  out  the  need  for 
continued  investigation  and  more  extended  scientific  research,  we  also 
urge  that  this  policy  of  gaining  more  definite  and  specific  knowledge 
relating  to  our  resources  be  adopted  by  the  several  States  no  less  than 
by  the  Federal  Government. 

Especially  commending  the  portions  of  the  report  dealing  with 
diminished  national  efficiency  due  to  disease  and  premature  death 
among  our  citizens,  we  urge  the  adoption  of  the  policy  of  protecting 
life  and  health  by  States,  municipalities,  and  communities  no  less  than 
by  the  Federal  Government ;  and  we  urge  further  investigation  of  all 
other  means  whereby  the  efficiency  of  individual  citizens,  and  hence  of 
the  States  and  Nation,  may  be  increased. 

We  favor  the  maintenance  of  conservation  commissions  in  every 
State ,  to  the  end  that  each  commonwealth  may  he  aided  and  guided 
in  making  the  best  use  of  those  abundant  resources  with  which  it  has 
been  blest. 

We  also  especially  urge  on  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  the 
high  desirability  of  maintaining  a  National  Commission  on  the  Con¬ 
servation  of  the  Resources  of  the  Country ,  empowered  to  cooperate 
with  State  commissions ,  to  the  end  that  every  sovereign  commonwealth 
■and  every  section  of  the  country  may  attain  the  high  degree  of  pros¬ 
perity  and  the  sureness  of  perpetuity  naturally  arising  in  the  abundant 
resources ,  and  the  vigor,  intelligence,  and  patriotism  of  our  people. 

Resolved,  That  a  joint  committee  be  appointed  by  the  Chairman ,  to 
. consist  of  six  ' members  of  State  Conservation  Commissions  and  three 
members  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  whose  duty  it 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


25 


shall  be  to  prepare  and  present  to  the  State  and  National  Commissions , 
and  through  them  to  the  Governors  and  the  President,  a  plan  for 
united  action  by  all  organizations  concerned  with  the  conservation  of 
natural  resources. 

(On  motion,  the  Chairman  and  the  Secretary  of  the  National  Con¬ 
servation  Commission  were  added  to  the  Joint  Committee.) 

Resolved,  That  the  question  of  the  desivability  of  and  ways  and 
means  for  publishing  the  proceedings  of  this  Conference  be  referred 
to  the  joint  committee  of  nine  provided  for  by  a  previous  resolution, 
with  power  to  act. 

Mr.  Powell  Evans,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Mr.  Calvin  Rice,  of  New 
York,  secretary  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  con¬ 
curred  in  the  following  suggestion,  which  was  unanimously  adopted : 

" That  the  national  organizations  invited  to  attend  this  Conference 
be  asked  to  give  their  advice  and  suggestions  to  the  committee  of  nine, 
which  is  to  be  appointed,  as  to  how  they  may  best  join  in  this  move¬ 
ment,  and  that  the  committee  of  nine  thereupon  communicate  with 
them  in  turn,  transmitting  to  these  various  organizations  the  sugges¬ 
tions  and  advice  thus  received  and  tabulated  by  the  committee  of  nine.” 

Joint  Conservation  Conference  Roster. 

The  Joint  Conservation  Conference,  which  unanimously  adopted  the 
above  report,  was  composed  of  the  following: 

Hon.  Wilford  B.  Hoggatt,  governor  of  Alaska. 

Hon.  Joseph  H.  Kibbey,  governor  of  Arizona. 

Hon.  X.  O.  Pindall,  acting  governor  of  Arkansas. 

Hon.  Rollin  S.  Woodruff,  governor  of  Connecticut. 

Hon.  H.  B.  F.  Macfarland,  chairman,  Board  of  Commissioners,  District  of 
Columbia. 

Hon.  Preston  Lea,  governor  of  Delaware. 

Hon.  Napoleon  B.  Broward,  governor  of  Florida. 

Hon.  Hoke  Smith,  governor  of  Georgia. 

Hon.  W.  F.  Frear,  governor  of  Hawaii. 

Hon.  Charles  S.  Deneen,  governor  of  Illinois. 

Hon.  Walter  R.  Stubbs,  governor-elect  of  Kansas. 

Hon.  Jared  T.  Sanders,  governor  of  Louisiana. 

Hon.  Austin  L.  Crothers,  governor  of  Maryland. 

Hon.  Curtis  Guild,  Jr.,  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Hon.  Fred  M.  Warner,  governor  of  Michigan. 

Hon.  John  A.  Johnson,  governor  of  Minnesota. 

Hon.  E.  F.  Noel,  governor  of  Mississippi. 

Hon.  George  Curry,  governor  of  New  Mexico. 

Hon.  John  Burke,  governor  of  North  Dakota. 

Hon.  George  E.  Chamberlain,  governor  of  Oregon. 

Hon.  Regis  H.  Post,  governor  of  Porto  Rico. 

Hon.  Martin  F.  Ansel,  governor  of  South  Carolina. 

Senator  William  C.  Edwards,  representative  of  Canada. 

Hon.  R.  H.  Campbell,  representative  of  Canada. 

Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie. 

Mr.  John  Mitchell. 

Dr.  Albert  Shaw,  editor  Review  of  Reviews. 


26  NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Personal  Representatives  of  Governors  : 
Mr.  J.  C.  Needham,  California. 

Mr.  William  G.  Evans,  Colorado. 

Hon.  Eugene  Hale,  Maine. 

Col.  John  A.  Ockerson,  Missouri. 

Hon.  Francis  G.  Newlands,  Nevada. 
Mr.  Philip  W.  Ayres,  New  Hampshire. 
Hon.  James  S.  Whipple,  New  York. 
Hon.  Rosewell  Page,  Virginia. 

Hon.  William  Irvine,  Wisconsin. 

Hon.  Charles  R.  Van  Hise,  Wisconsin. 
Hon.  William  E.  Mullen,  Wyoming. 


Representatives  of  the  States: 

Alabama —  .  . 

Mr.  W.  P.  Lay,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Frank  H.  Lathrop,  member  conservation  commission. 
Mr.  J.  B.  Powell,  member  conservation  commission. 

California —  .  .  . 

Mr.  Francis  Cuttle,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Frank  H.  Short,  member  conservation  commission. 
Mrs.  Lovell  White,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Grant  Conard. 

Colorado — 

Hon.  Simon  Guggenheim,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Colorado. 
Mr.  I.  N.  Stevens,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.*  Clarence  P.  Dodge,  member  conservation  commission. 
Mr.  Ellsworth  Bethel,  member  conservation  commission. 


Mr.  Brooks  Irione. 
Connecticut — 

Mr.  Albert  N.  Abbee. 
Mr.  R.  T.  Crane. 


Delaware —  .  . 

Hon.  Benjamin  Nields,  member  conservation  commission. 

Florida — 

Hon.  William  H.  Milton,  U.  S.  Senator  from  hlorida,  and  chairman 


conservation  commission. 

Hon.  Duncan  U.  Fletcher,  member  conservation  commission. 

Georgia—  .  .  . 

Mr.  John  A.  Betjeman,  member  conservation  commission. 

Illinois — 

Hon.  Isham  Randolph,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Dr.  H.  Foster  Bain,  member  conservation  commission. 

Dr.  Cyril  C.  Hopkins,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Glenn  W.  Traer,  member  conservation  commission. 
Indiana — 

Mr.  Henry  Riesenberg,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Chas.  S.  Bash,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Joseph  D.  Oliver,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Wickey,  member  conservation  commission. 
Kentucky — 

Mr.  John  B.  Atkinson,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Wm.  R.  Belknap,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  D.  C.  Edwards,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Fred  W.  Keisker,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  F.  C.  Nunemacher,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Tomlin,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Bennett. 

Gen.  John  B.  Castleman. 

Mr.  A.  D.  James. 

Mr.  John  W.  Langley. 

Col.  A.  T.  McDonald. 

Mr.  Clifton  J.  Waddill. 

Louisiana — 

Hon.  Henry  E.  Hardtner,  chairman  conservation  commission. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


27 


Hon.  Harry  P.  Gamble,  secretary  conservation  commission. 

Maj.  F.  M.  Kerr,  member  conservation  commission. 

Maryland — 

Mr.  Bernard  N.  Baker,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Prof.  William  Bullock  Clark,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Edward  Hirsch,  member  conservation  commission. 

Massachusetts — 

Prof.  Frank  W.  Rane,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Michigan — 

Hon.  Wm.  H.  Rose,  chairman  forestry  commission. 

Hon.  W.  B.  Mershon,  member  forestry  commission. 

Hon.  Huntley  Russell,  commissioner  of  the  State  land  office. 

Hon.  Wm.  F.  Knox. 

Minnesota — 

Hon.  F.  B.  Lynch. 

Mr.  P.  H.  Nelson. 

Mr.  S.  D.  Works. 

Mississippi — 

Prof.  H.  L.  Whitfield. 

Missouri — 

Mr.  W.  K.  Kavanaugh,  chairman  commission  on  waterways. 

Dr.  Herman  Von  Schrenk,  chairman  commission  on  forestry. 

Dr.  William  H.  Black,  member  commission  on  forestry. 

Mr.  T.  H.  Herring,  member  commission  on  waterways. 

Mr.  W.  K.  James,  member  commission  on  waterways. 

Mr.  S.  Waters  Fox. 

Nebraska — 

Prof.  G.  E.  Condra,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  P.  H.  Marlay,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  F.  D.  Wead,  member  conservation  commission. 

New  Jersey — 

Mr.  E.  B.  Voorhees,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Alfred  Gaskill,  State  forester  and  member  conservation  commission. 
Dr.  Henry  B.  Kiimmel,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Henry  J.  Sherman,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Morris  R.  Sherrerd,  member  conservation  commission. 

New  Mexico — 

Hon.  Solomon  Luna,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  H.  W.  Kelly,  member  conservation  commission. 

New  York — 

Hon.  Raymond  A.  Pearson,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  Henry  H.  Persons,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  Frederick  Skene,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  Frederick  C.  Stevens,  member  conservation  commission. 

Ohio — 

Hon.  Jacob  A.  Beidler,  chairman  forestry  bureau. 

Oregon — 

Hon.  Joseph  N.  Teal,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Pennsylvania — 

Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Powell  Evans,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  A.  B.  Farquhar,  member  conservation  commission. 

Col.  Wm.  S.  Harvey,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  W.  R.  Smith,  Member  of  Congress. 

Rhode  Island — 

Mr.  Henry  A.  Barker,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  J.  Herbert  Shedd,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Jesse  B.  Mowry. 

South  Carolina — 

Mr.  E.  J.  Watson,  chairman  conservation  committee. 

Prof.  Earle  Sloan,  member  conservation  committee. 

South  Dakota — 

Hon.  Robert  J.  Gamble,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Eben  W.  Martin,  member  conservation  commission. 


28 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Tennessee — 

Prof.  L.  C.  Glenn. 

Utah —  .  .  . 

Hon.  O.  J.  Salisbury,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Hon*.  A.  W.  Ivins,  member  conservation  commission. 

Virginia —  .  . 

Hon.  W.  E.  Bibb,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  George  W.  Koiner,  member  conservation  commission. 

Dr.  Thomas  L.  Watson,  member  conservation  commission. 

Hon.  P.  St.  Julian  Wilson,  member  conservation  commission. 

West  Virginia —  .  .  . 

Mr.  Hu  Maxwell,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Neil  Robinson,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  James  H.  Stewart,  member  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  G.  W.  Atkinson. 

Representatives  of  National  Organizations  : 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science- 

Prof.  Emory  R.  Johnson,  chairman  conservation  committee. 

Dr.  S.  M.  Lindsay,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science- 

Prof.  Wm.  F.  M.  Goss,  personal  representative  of  the  president. 
American  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations— 
Mr.  J.  L.  Snyder,  president. 

American  Automobile  Association — 

Mr.  Powell  Evans,  personal  representative. 

Mr.  C.  Gordon  Neff,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Bar  Association — 

Mr.  John  Hinkley,  secretary. 

American  Chemical  Society — 

Prof.  Marston  T.  Bogert,  president. 

Dr.  F.  W.  Clarke,  chief  chemist  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  and  member 
conservation  committee. 

Mr.  R.  B.  Dole,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Civic  Association — 

Mr.  J.  Horace  McFarland,  president. 

Mr.  Clinton  Rogers  Woodruff,  secretary. 

Mr.  A.  B.  Farquhar,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Electrochemical  Society— 

Mr.  Edward  G.  Acheson,  president. 

Mr.  Edward  R.  Taylor,  chairman  conservation  committee. 

American  Federation  of  Labor— 

Mr.  Samuel  Gompers,  president. 

Mr.  James  O’Connell,  third  vice-president. 

Mr.  Frank  Morrison,  secretary. 

American  Forestry  Association — 

Col.  Wm.  S.  Harvey,  member  board  of  directors. 

American  Institute  of  Architects — 

Mr.  Cass  Gilbert,  president. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers — 

Mr.  John  H.  Finney,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers — 

Mr.  John  Hays  Hammond,  president. 

American  Medical  Association — 

Dr.  Herbert  L.  Burrell,  president. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Musser,  chairman  conservation  committee. 

Dr.  George  W.  Gay,  member  conservation  committee. 

American  Mining  Congress —  . 

Hon.  J.  H.  Richards,  president. 

Mr.  E.  R.  Buckley,  first  vice-president. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Callbreath,  Jr.,  secretary. 

American  Newspaper  Publishers  Association — 

Mr.  John  Norris,  chairman  conservation  committee. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


29 


American  Railway  Association — 

Mr.  Arthur  Hale,  personal  representative. 

American  Railway  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Association 
Mr.  Wm.  McNab,  president. 

American  Scenic  and  Historic  Preservation  Society — 

Mr.  Hiram  J.  Messenger. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers — 

Mr.  Chas.  Macdonald,  president. 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers — 

Mr.  Jesse  M.  Smith,  president. 

Mr.  Calvin  W.  Rice,  secretary. 

Mr.  Luther  D.  Burlingame,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  John  R.  Freeman,  member  advisory  board. 

American  Society  for  Testing  Materials — 

Mr.  Chas.  B.  Dudley,  president 
Appalachian  National  Forest  Association — 

Hon.  D.  A.  Tompkins,  president. 

Mr.  John  H.  Finney,  secretary.. 

Atlantic  Deeper  Waterways  Association — 

Hon.  J.  Hampton  Moore,  president. 

Business  Men’s  League  of  St.  Louis — 

Mr.  James  E.  Smith,  president. 

Mr.  Wm.  F.  Saunders,  secretary. 

Mr.  Clarence  H.  Howard,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  Geo.  W.  Simmons,  member  conservation  committee. 

Carriage  Builders’  National  Association — 

Mr.  Geo.  H.  Babcock,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  W.  P.  Champney,  member  conservation  committee. 

Conservation  League  of  America — 

Mr.  Walter  L.  Fisher,  president. 

Mr.  John  F.  Bass. 

Mr.  Lauriston  Ward. 

Farmers’  National  Congress — 

Hon.  B.  Cameron,  president. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Fuller,  member  executive  committee. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Wickey,  member  executive  committee. 

General  Federation  of  Women’s  Clubs — 

Mrs.  F.  W.  Gerard,  chairman  committee  on  forestry. 

Mrs.  John  D.  Wilkinson,  chairman  committee  on  waterways. 

Miss  Laura  D.  Gill. 

International  Tax  Association — 

Mr.  Lawson  Purdy,  vice-president. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Pleydell,  secretary. 

Interstate  Inland  Waterway — 

Mr.  C.  S.  E.  Holland,  president. 

Interstate  Mississippi  River  Improvement  Association — 

Mr.  Charles  Scott,  president. 

Lakes-to-the-Gulf  Deep  Waterway  Association — 

Mr.  Wm.  K.  Kavanaugh,  president. 

Mr.  Wm.  F.  Saunders,  secretary. 

Mr.  Lyman  E.  Cooley,  member  conservation  committee. 

Hon.  X.  O.  Pindall,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  Charles  Scott,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  James  E.  Smith,  member  conservation  committee. 

Missouri  River  Improvement  Association — 

Col.  Henry  T.  Clarke,  president. 

National  Academy  of  Sciences — 

Dr.  Ira  Remsen,  president. 

Prof.  William  Bullock  Clark,  chairman  conservation  committee. 
Prof.  E.  G.  Conklin,  member  conservation  committee. 

National  Association  of  Agricultural  Implement  and  Vehicle  Manufac¬ 
turers — 

Mr.  Newell  Sanders,  chairman  conservation  committee. 


30 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies — 

Mr.  T.  Gilbert  Pearson,  secretary  and  member  conservation  committee. 
National  Association  of  Cotton  Manufacturers — 

Mr.  C.  J.  Woodbury,  secretary. 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers — 

Mr.  James  W.  Van  Cleave,  president. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters — 

Mr.  J.  Montgomery  Hare,  president. 

National  Board  of  Trade — 

Mr.  Frank  D.  La  Lanne,  president. 

National  Business  League  of  America — 

Mr.  La  Verne  W.  Noyes,  president  and  member  conservation  commission. 
Mr.  Victor  Falkenau,  chairman  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  A.  B.  Farquhar,  member  conservation  commission. 

National  Civic  Federation — 

Mr.  John  Mitchell,  chairman  trade  agreement  department. 

National  Council  of  Commerce — 

Mr.  George  L.  McCarthy,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  H.  E.  Miles,  member  conservation  committee. 

Mr.  Frank  B.  Wiborg,  member  conservation  committee. 

National  Drainage  Association — 

Hon.  Napoleon  B.  Broward,  president. 

National  Editorial  Association — 

Mr.  Chester  Harrison,  member  conservation  committee. 

National  Electric  Light  Association — 

Mr.  Dudley  Farrand,  chairman  conservation  committee. 

National  Forest  Conservation  League — 

Hon.  Samuel  R.  Van  Sant,  president. 

Mr.  Theodore  Knappen,  secretary. 

Mr.  W.  S.  Dwinnell. 

National  Grange — 

Mr.  H.  J.  Patterson. 

National  Hay  Association — 

Mr.  Maurice  Neizer,  president. 

National  Hickory  Association — 

Mr.  H.  D.  Hartley,  secretary  and  member  conservation  committee. 
National  Irrigation  Congress — 

Mr.  George  E.  Barstow,  president. 

National  Lumber  Manufacturers’  Association — 

Mr.  George  K.  Smith,  secretary. 

National  Municipal  League — 

Mr.  Clinton  Rogers  Woodruff,  secretary. 

National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufacturers’  Association — 

Mr.  C.  M.  Van  Aiken,  president. 

National  Tax  Association — 

Mr.  A.  C.  Pleydell. 

Mr.  Lawson  Purdy. 

Trans-Mississippi  Commercial  Congress — 

Mr.  Thomas  F.  Walsh,  president. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Callbreath,  Jr. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Case. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Fleming. 

Mr.  I.  T.  Pryor. 

Upper  Mississippi  River  Improvement  Association — 

Mr.  Thomas  Wilkinson,  president. 

Woman’s  National  Rivers  and  Harbors  Congress — 

Mrs.  Frances  Shuttleworth,  corresponding  secretary. 

Bureau  Chiefs  and  Experts  : 

Geological  Survey — 

Dr.  George  Otis  Smith,  Director. 

Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  geographer  national  conservation  commission. 

Mr.  Robert  Follensbee. 

Mr.  R.  B.  Dole. 


progress  bulletin  NO.  4 


31 


Dr.  D.  T.  Day. 

Mr.  M.  R.  Campbell. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Hayes. 

Mr.  M.  O.  Leighton. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Mendenhall. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Parker. 

Mr.  F.  B.  Van  Horn. 

Dr.  Bailey  Willis. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Wilson. 

Forest  Service — 

Mr.  Wm.  T.  Cox. 

Mr.  Wm.  L.  Hall. 

Mr.  R.  S.  Kellogg. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Shaw. 

Mr.  Philip  P.  Wells. 

Mr.  E.  A.  Ziegler. 

General  Land  Office — 

Plon.  Fred  Dennett,  Commissioner. 

Mr.  Francis  W.  Clements,  first  assistant  attorney,  Interior  Department. 
Mr.  E.  C.  Finney. 

Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor — 

Hon.  O.  P.  Austin,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Entomology — 

Dr.  L.  O.  Howard,  Chief. 

Mr.  C.  L.  Marlatt. 

Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins. 

Weather  Bureau — 

Prof.  Willis  L.  Moore,  Chief. 

Prof.  Harry  C.  Frankenfield. 

Reclamation  Service — 

Mr.  C.  J.  Blanchard,  Statistician. 

Mr.  Morris  Bien. 

Indian  Office — 

Mr.  R.  G.  Valentine. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry — 

Dr.  B.  T.  Galloway,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Corporations — 

Mr.  W.  B.  Hunter. 

Biological  Survey — 

Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Agriculture — 

Mr.  Victor  H.  Olmsted,  Chief  Statistician. 

Bureau  of  Fisheries — 

Mr.  Hugh  M.  Smith. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations — 

Dr.  A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Bureau  of  Chemistry — 

Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  Chief. 

Bureau  of  Soils — 

Dr.  Milton  Whitney,  Chief. 

Delegates  at  Large: 

Mr.  Victor  C.  Alderson,  Colorado. 

Mr.  Geo.  N.  Babb,  New  York. 

Mr.  R.  Dan  Benson,  Pennsylvania. 

Mr.  Chas.  W.  Bernhardt,  Georgia. 

Mr.  Nathan  D.  Bill,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  George  Black,  Washington. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Black,  Alabama. 

Mr.  L.  W.  Brown,  Virginia. 

Mr.  W.  P.  Brown,  Washington. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Butler,  Maine. 

Mr.  Joseph  L.  Cahall,  Delaware. 

Mr.  W.  M.  Cameron,  Tennessee. 


32 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Mr.  Thomas  W.  Carmichael. 

Mr.  S.  Ii.  Chappell,  Georgia. 

Mr.  R.  F.  Clerc,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  Geo.  Ward  Cook,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  S.  A.  Cosulich,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  S.  H.  Cowan,  Texas. 

Mr.  John  Craft,  Alabama. 

Mr.  Thomas  F.  Cunningham,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Damon,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Delfeker,  Wyoming. 

Mr.  Gould  Dietz,  Omaha. 

Mr.  Theodore  Dwight,  New  York. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Ellis,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  B.  F.  Eshleman,  Wyoming. 

Mr.  John  W.  Faxon,  Tennessee. 

Mr.  Chas.  D.  Gates,  Kentucky. 

Dr.  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Mr.  Henry  R.  Hayes,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  W.  S.  Holman,  Texas. 

Mr.  Emerson  Hough,  Illinois. 

Mr.  E.  S.  Johnson,  Georgia. 

Mr.  P.  G.  Johnston,  Idaho. 

Mr.  Charles  P.  Johnston,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  H.  S.  Keathoper,  Alabama. 

Mr.  M.  N.  Kline,  Pennsylvania. 

Mr.  Victor  M.  Lefebere,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  Sidney  F.  Lewis,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  H.  H.  Little,  Virginia. 

Mr.  Wm.  McCarroll,  New  York. 

Mr.  J.  T.  McClellan. 

Mr.  V.  Manvin,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  Josiah  Marvel,  Delaware. 

Mr.  H.  J.  Messenger,  Connecticut. 

Mr.  Roy  Miller,  Texas. 

Mr.  R.  A.  Mitchell,  Alabama. 

Mr.  S.  F.  Mosle,  Texas. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Nebb,  Georgia. 

Mrs.  Mary  M.  North,  Maryland. 

Mrs.  Lina  Simpson  Poffenboyer,  West  Virginia. 
Mr.  Wm.  F.  Prouty,  Alabama. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Pryor,  Texas. 

Mr.  Herbert  Quick,  Wisconsin. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Rafferty,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hon.  F.  A.  Richards,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  Franklin  C.  Robinson,  Maine. 

Mr.  G.  A.  Rogers,  Kansas. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Royster,  Tennessee. 

Mr.  F.  D.  Ryan,  Washington. 

Mr.  C.  G.  Smith,  New  York. 

Mr.  H.  C.  Smith,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  Edwin  A.  Start,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  Charles  J.  Swift,  Georgia. 

Mr.  E.  C.  Talenv,  Mississippi. 

Mr.  S.  Taliaferrio,  Texas. 

Mr.  M.  B.  Trezevant,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  Louis  Ed.  Vanoft,  Louisiana. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Warren,  Tennessee. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Woods,  Massachusetts. 

and 

The  National  Conservation  Commission. 


NORTH  AMERICAN  CONSERVATION  CONFERENCE. 


INVITATION. 

As  an  outgrowth  of  the  Joint  Conservation  Conference  in  December, 
1908,  a  letter  of  invitation  to  Canada  and  Mexico  to  join  with  the 
United  States  in  a  North  American  Conservation  Conference  was  on 
December  24,  1908,  written  by  President  Roosevelt.  It  was  conveyed 
in  person  to  Lord  Grey  and  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  Governor-General 
and  Premier  of  the  Canadian  Government  respectively,  and  to  President 
Diaz  of  Mexico,  by  Gifford  Pinchot,  Chairman  of  the  National  Con¬ 
servation  Commission,  whom  the  President  selected  for  this  duty.  The 
invitation  was  likewise  extended  to  the  Colony  of  Newfoundland.  The 
letter,  as  addressed  to  Lord  Grey,  follows: 

The  White  House,  December  24,  1908. 

My  Dear  Lord  Grey: 

In  May  of  the  present  year  the  Governors  of  the  several  States  and 
Territories  of  this  Union  met  in  the  White  House  to  confer  with  the 
President  and  with  each  other  concerning  the  amount  and  condition 
of  the  natural  resources  of  this  country,  and  to  consider  the  most  ef¬ 
fective  means  for  conserving  them.  This  conference  included  also 
the  members  of  the  Supreme  Court,  the  Cabinet,  and  members  of  both 
Houses  of  Congress,  together  with  representatives  of  the  great  asso¬ 
ciations  of  citizens  concerned  with  natural  resources.  The  conference 
was  followed  by  the  appointment  of  conservation  commissions  on  the 
part  of  the  Nation  and  of  a  majority  of  the  States. 

A  second  conference  of  the  National  Commission  with  the  Govern¬ 
ors,  the  State  commissions,  and  the  conservation  committees  of  the 
great  associations  has  recently  been  held  in  this  city.  It  was  called 
to  consider  an  inventory  of  our  natural  resources  prepared  by  the 
National  Conservation  Commission.  Its  most  important  result  will 
doubtless  appear  in  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  Nation,  the  States, 
and  the  great  associations  of  citizens  for  action  upon  this  great  ques¬ 
tion,  upon  which  the  progress  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  ob¬ 
viously  depends. 

It  is  evident  that  natural  resources  are  not  limited  by  the  boundary 
lines  which  separate  nations,  and  that  the  need  for  conserving  them 
upon  this  continent  is  as  wide  as  the  area  upon  which  they  exist.  In 
view,  therefore,  of  these  considerations,  and  of  the  close  bonds  of 
friendship  and  mutual  aims  which  exist  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  I  take  especial  pleasure  in  inviting  you  to  designate 
representatives  of  the  Government  of  Canada  to  meet  and  consult  with 
3— cc 


33 


34 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


representatives  of  the  State  and  other  departments  of  this  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  the  National  Conservation  Commission,  in  the  city  of  Wash¬ 
ington  on  February  18,  1909.  The  purpose  of  the  conference  I  have 
the  honor  to  propose  is  to  consider  mutual  interests  involved  in  the 
conservation  of  natural  resources,  and  in  this  great  field  deliberate  upon 
the  practicability  of  preparing  a  general  plan  adapted  to  promote  the 
welfare  of  the  Nations  concerned. 

I  have  this  day  addressed  a  similar  invitation  to  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,  expressing  my  hope  that  representatives  of  that  Government 
also  will  be  present  and  participate  in  the  proposed  conference  on  the 
conservation  of  the  natural  resources  of  North  America. 

The  conclusions  of  such  a  conference,  while  wholly  advisory  in 
character,  could  hardly  fail  to  yield  important  beneficial  results,  both 
in  a  better  knowledge  of  the  natural  resources  of  each  Nation  on  the 
part  of  the  others  and  in  suggestions  for  concurrent  action  for  the 
protection  of  mutual  interests  related  to  conservation. 

As  my  representative  to  convey  to  you  this  letter  and  invitation, 
and  at  your  desire  to  consult  with  you  concerning  the  proposed  con¬ 
ference,  I  have  selected  an  officer  of  this  Government,  Chief  of  the 
United  States  Forest  Service  and  Chairman  of  the  National  Con¬ 
servation  Commission,  whom  I  commend  to  your  kind  offices. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Theodore  Roosevelt. 
Conference  Sessions. 

On  February  18,  the  visiting  Commissioners  representing  the  Ca¬ 
nadian  and  Mexican  Governments  (the  delegate  from  Newfoundland 
having  been  delayed)  were  received  by  the  President  in  the  East  Room 
of  the  White  House  in  the  presence  of  members  of  the  Cabinet,  the 
British  Ambassador,  the  Mexican  Charge  d’Affaires,  members  of  the 
National  Conservation  Commission,  and  chiefs  of  the  Government 
bureaus  and  experts  who  contributed  to  the  inventory  of  natural  re¬ 
sources  made  by  the  Commission. 

The  personnel  of  the  Conference  was  as  follows: 

Gifford  Pinchot,  Robert  Bacon,  James  Rudolph  Garfield,  Commis¬ 
sioners  representing  the  United  States. 

Sydney  Fisher,  Clifford  Sifton,  Henri  S.  Beland,  Commissioners 
representing  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Romulo  Escobar,  Miguel  A.  De  Quevedo,  Carlos  Sellerier,  Commis¬ 
sioners  representing  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 

E.  H.  Outerbridge,  Commissioner  representing  the  Colony  of  New¬ 
foundland. 

Robert  E.  Young,  Thomas  R.  Shipp,  Secretaries  of  the  Conference. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4  35 

After  a  session  continuing  through  five  days  the  Conference  united 
in  the  following  Declaration  of  Principles: 

Declaration  oe  Principles. 

We  recognize  the  mutual  interests  of  the  Nations  which  occupy  the 
Continent  of  North  America  and  the  dependence  of  the  welfare  of 
each  upon  its  natural  resources.  We  agree  that  the  conservation  of 
these  resources  is  indispensable  for  the  continued  prosperity  of  each 
Nation. 

We  recognize  that  the  protection  of  mutual  interests  related  to 
natural  resources  by  concerted  action,  without  in  any  way  interfering 
with  the  authority  of  each  Nation  within  its  own  sphere,  will  result 
in  mutual  benefits,  and  tend  to  draw  still  closer  the  bonds  of  existing 
good  will,  confidence,  and  respect.  Natural  resources  are  not  con¬ 
fined  by  the  boundary  lines  that  separate  Nations.  We  agree  that  no 
Nation  acting  alone  can  adequately  conserve  them,  and  we  recom¬ 
mend  the  adoption  of  concurrent  measures  for  conserving  the  material 
foundations  of  the  welfare  of  all  the  Nations  concerned,  and  for  ascer¬ 
taining  their  location  and  extent. 

We  recognize  as  natural  resources  all  materials  available  for  the 
use  of  man  as  means  of  life  and  welfare,  including  those  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  like  the  soil  and  the  waters ;  those  below  the  surface, 
like  the  minerals;  and  those  above  the  surface,  like  the  forests.  We 
agree  that  these  resources  should  be  developed,  used,  and  conserved 
for  the  future,  in  the  interests  of  mankind,  whose  rights  and  duties 
to  guard  and  control  the  natural  sources  of  life  and  welfare  are  in¬ 
herent,  perpetual,  and  indefeasible.  We  agree  that  those  resources 
which  are  necessaries  of  life  should  be  regarded  as  public  utilities,  that 
their  ownership  entails  specific  duties  to  the  public,  and  that  as  far  as 
possible  effective  measures  should  be  adopted  to  guard  against  mo¬ 
nopoly. 

public  health. 

Believing  that  the  Conservation  movement  tends  strongly  to  de¬ 
velop  national  efficiency  in  the  highest  possible  degree  in  our  respective 
countries,  we  recognize  that  to  accomplish  such  an  object  with  success, 
the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  public  health  is  a  first  essential. 

In  all  steps  for  the  utilization  of  natural  resources  considerations  of 
public  health  should  always  be  kept  in  view. 

Facts  which  cannot  be  questioned  demonstrate  that  immediate  action 
is  necessary  to  prevent  further  pollution,  mainly  by  sewage,  of  the 
lakes,  rivers,  and  streams  throughout  North  America.  Such  pollution, 
aside  from  the  enormous  loss  in  fertilizing  elements  entailed  thereby, 


3^ 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


is  an  immediate  and  continuous  danger  to  public  health,  to  the  health 
of  animals,  and,  when  caused  by  certain  chemical  agents,  to  agriculture. 
Therefore  we  recommend  that  preventive  legislation  be  enacted. 

FORESTS. 

We  recognize  the  forests  as  indispensable  to  civilization  and  public 
welfare.  They  furnish  material  for  construction  and  manufacture, 
and  promote  the  habitability  of  the  earth.  We  regard  the  wise  use, 
effective  protection,  especially  from  fire,  and  prompt  renewal  of  the 
forests  on  land  best  adapted  to  such  use,  as  a  public  necessity  and 
hence  a  public  duty  devolving  upon  all  forest  owners  alike,  whether 
public,  corporate,  or  individual. 

We  consider  the  creation  of  many  and  large  forest  reservations  and 
their  permanent  maintenance  under  Government  control  absolutely 
essential  to  the  public  welfare. 

We  favor  the  early  completion  of  inventories  of  forest  resources, 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  available  supply  and  the  rate  of  consumption 
and  reproduction. 

We  recommend  the  extension  of  technical  education  and  practical 
field  instruction  in  forest  conservation,  afforestation,  and  reforestation, 
so  as  to  provide  efficient  forest  officers  whose  knowledge  will  be  avail¬ 
able  for  necessary  public  information  on  these  subjects. 

Believing  that  excessive  taxation  on  standing  timber  privately  owned 
is  a  potent  cause  of  forest  destruction  by  increasing  the  cost  of  main¬ 
taining  growing  forests,  we  agree  in  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  separat¬ 
ing  the  taxation  of  timber  land  from  the  taxation  of  the  timber  grow¬ 
ing  upon  it,  and  adjusting  both  in  such  a  manner  as  to  encourage 
forest  conservation  and  forest  growing. 

We  agree  that  the  ownership  of  forest  lands,  either  at  the  headwaters 
of  streams  or  upon  areas  better  suited  for  forest  growth  than  for 
other  purposes,  entails  duties  to  the  public,  and  that  such  lands  should 
be  potected  with  equal  effectiveness,  whether  under  public  or  private 
ownership. 

Forests  are  necessary  to  protect  the  sources  of  streams,  moderate 
floods  and  equalize  the  flow  of  waters,  temper  the  climate,  and  pro¬ 
tect  the  soil;  and  we  agree  that  all  forests  necessary  for  these  pur¬ 
poses  should  be  amply  safeguarded.  We  affirm  the  absolute  need  of 
holding  for  forests,  or  reforesting,  all  lands  supplying  the  headwaters 
of  streams,  and  we  therefore  favor  the  control  or  acquisition  of  such 
lands  for  the  public. 

The  private  owners  of  lands  unsuited  to  agriculture,  once  forested 
and  now  impoverished  or  denuded,  should  be  encouraged  by  prac¬ 
tical  instruction,  adjustment  of  taxation,  and  in  other  proper  ways, 
to  undertake  the  reforesting  thereof. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


37 


Notwithstanding  an  increasing  public  interest  in  forestry,  the  calami¬ 
tous  and  far-reaching  destruction  of  forests  by  fire  still  continues, 
and  demands  immediate  and  decisive  action.  We  believe  that  systems 
of  fire  guardianship  and  patrol  afford  the  best  means  of  dealing  with 
fires  which  occur,  whether  from  natural  causes,  such  as  lightning,  or 
in  other  ways;  but  we  affirm  that  in  addition  thereto  effective  laws  are 
urgently  needed  to  reduce  the  vast  damage  from  preventable  causes. 

Apart  from  fire,  the  principal  cause  of  forest  destruction  is  unwise 
and  improvident  cutting,  which,  in  many  cases,  has  resulted  in  wide¬ 
spread  injury  to  the  climate  and  the  streams.  It  is  therefore  of  the 
first  importance  that .  all  lumbering  operations  should  be  carried  on 
under  a  system  of  rigid  regulation. 

WATERS. 

We  recognize  the  waters  as  a  primary  resource,  and  we  regard  their 
use  for  domestic  and  municipal  supply,  irrigation,  navigation,  and 
power,  as  interrelated  public  uses,  and  properly  subject  to  public  con¬ 
trol.  We  therefore  favor  the  complete  and  concurrent  development 
of  the  streams  and  their  sources  for  every  useful  purpose  to  which 
they  may  be  put. 

The  highest  and  most  necessary  use  of  water  is  for  domestic  and 
municipal  purposes.  We  therefore  favor  the  recognition  of  this  prin¬ 
ciple  in  legislation,  and,  where  necessary,  the  subordination  of  other 
uses  of  water  thereto. 

The  superior  economy  of  water  transportation  over  land  transpor¬ 
tation,  as  well  as  its  advantages  in  limiting  the  consumption  of  the 
non-renewable  resources,  coal  and  iron,  and  its  effectiveness  in  the 
promotion  of  commerce,  are  generally  acknowledged.  We  therefore 
favor  the  development  of  inland  navigation  under  general  plans  adapted 
to  secure  the  uniform  progress  of  the  work  and  the  fullest  use  of  the 
streams  for  all  purposes.  We  further  express  our  belief  that  all  water¬ 
ways  so  developed  should  be  retained  under  exclusive  public  ownership 
and  control. 

We  regard  the  monopoly  of  waters,  and  especially  the  monopoly 
of  .water  power,  as  peculiarly  threatening.  No  rights  to  the  use  of 
water  powers  in  streams  should  hereafter  be  granted  in  perpetuity. 
Each  grant  should  be  conditioned  upon  prompt  development,  con¬ 
tinued  beneficial  use,  and  the  payment  of  proper  compensation  to  the 
public  for  the  rights  enjoyed ;  and  should  be  for  a  definite  period  only. 
Such  period  should  be  no  longer  than  is  required  for  reasonable  safety 
of  investment.  The  public  authority  should  retain  the  right  to  re¬ 
adjust  at  stated  periods  the  compensation  to  the  public  and  to  regulate 
the  rates  charged,  to  the  end  that  undue  profit  or  extortion  may  be 
prevented. 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


38 

Where  the  construction  of  works  to  utilize  water  has  been  author¬ 
ized  by  public  authority  and  such  utilization  is  necessary  for  the  public 
welfare,  provision  should  be  made  for  the  expropriation  of  any  pri¬ 
vately  owned  land  and  water  rights  required  for  such  construction. 

The  interest  of  the  public  in  the  increase  of  the  productiveness 
of  arid  lands  by  irrigation  and  of  wet  lands  by  drainage  is  manifest. 
We  therefore  favor  the  participation  of  the  public  to  secure  the  com¬ 
plete  and  economical  development  arrd  use  of  all  water  available  for 
irrigation  and  of  all  lands  susceptible  of  profitable  drainage,  in  order 
to  ensure  the  widest  possible  benefit.  Special  projects  should  be  con¬ 
sidered  and  developed  in  connection  with  a  general  plan  for  the  same 
watershed.  In  the  matter  of  irrigation  public  authority  should  con¬ 
trol  the  headwaters  and  provide  for  the  construction  of  storage  reser¬ 
voirs  and  for  the  equitable  distribution  and  use  of  the  stored  water. 

LANDS. 

We  recognize  land  as  a  fundamental  resource,  yielding  the  materials 
needed  for  sustaining  population,  and  forming  the  basis  of  social  or¬ 
ganization.  Increase  in  the  productivity  of  the  soil  is  a  growing  need, 
and  the  possession  of  the  land  by  the  men  wffio  live  upon  it  not  only 
promotes  such  productivity,  but  is  also  the  best  guarantee  of  good 
citizenship.  In  the  interest  of  the  homemaker,  w^e  favor  regulation 
of  grazing  on  public  land,  the  disposal  of  public  lands  to  actual  settlers 
in  areas  each  sufficient  to  support  a  family,  and  the  subdivision  of  ex¬ 
cessive  holdings  of  agricultural  or  grazing  land,  thereby  preventing 
monopoly. 

The  preservation  of  the  productivity  of  the  soil  is  dependent  upon 
rotation  of  crops,  fertilization  by  natural  or  artificial  means,  and  im¬ 
proved  methods  in  farm  management.  The  quantity  and  quality  of 
crops  are  also  dependent  upon  the  careful  selection  of  seed.  We 
therefore  favor  the  distribution  by  Government  bureaus  of  scientific 
and  practical  information  on  these  points,  and  we  urge  upon  all  farmers 
careful  attention  thereto. 

The  national  importance  for  grazing  of  non-irrigable  public  lands 
too  dry  for  cultivation,  and  the  public  loss  occasioned  by  overgrazing, 
are  generallv  acknowledged.  We  therefore  favor  Government  control 
of  such  lands  in  order  to  restore  their  value,  promote  settlement,  and 
increase  the  public  resources. 

The  first  requisite  for  forest  or  other  covering  which  will  conserve 
the  rainfall  and  promote  regularity  of  water  flow  is  the  retention  of 
the  soil  upon  watersheds.  We  therefore  favor  the  construction  of  such 
artificial  works  as  may  effect  this  purpose  and  the  encouragement 
thereof  by  remission  of  taxes,  Government  cooperation,  or  other  suit¬ 
able  means. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


39 


MINERALS. 

We  recognize  the  mineral  resources  as  forming  the  chief  basis  of 
industrial  progress,  and  regard  their  use  and  conservation  as  essential 
to  the  public  welfare.  The  mineral  fuels  play  an  indispensable  part 
in  our  modern  civilization.  We  favor  action  on  the  part  of  each  Gov¬ 
ernment  looking  towards  reduction  of  the  enormous  waste  in  the  ex¬ 
ploitation  of  such  fuels,  and  we  direct  attention  to  the  necessity  for  an 
inventory  thereof.  Such  fuels  should  hereafter  be  disposed  of  by  lease 
under  such  restrictions  or  regulations  as  will  prevent  waste  and  mo¬ 
nopolistic  or  speculative  holding,  and  supply  the  public  at  reasonable 
prices. 

We  believe  that  the  surface  rights  and  underground  mineral  rights 
in  lands  should  be  separately  dealt  with  so  as  to  permit  the  surface 
of  the  land  to  be  utilized  to  the  fullest  extent,  while  preserving  Gov¬ 
ernment  control  over  the  minerals. 

Regulations  should  be  adopted  looking  to  the  most  economical  pro¬ 
duction  of  coal  and  other  mineral  fuels  and  the  prolongation  of  the  sup¬ 
ply  to  the  utmost.  We  favor  also  the  substitution  of  water  power  for 
steam  or  other  power  produced  by  the  consumption  of  fuel. 

Great  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  has  resulted  in  the  past  from  the 
application  of  scientific  inventions  and  the  use  of  improvements  in 
machinery,  and  further  progress  can  be  made  in  the  same  direction. 
We  therefore  recommend  that  all  possible  encouragement  and  assist¬ 
ance  be  given  in  the  development  and  perfecting  of  means  whereby 
waste  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  can  be  reduced. 

The  loss  of  human  life  through  preventable  mining  accidents  in 
North  America  is  excessive.  Much  needless  suffering  and  bereave¬ 
ment  results  therefrom.  Accompanying  this  loss  there  is  great  de¬ 
struction  of  valuable  mineral  property  and  enhancement  of  the  cost 
of  production.  The  best  method  of  eliminating  these  known  and  ad¬ 
mitted  evils  lies  in  the  enactment  and  strict  enforcement  of  regulations 
which  will  provide  the  greatest  possible  security  for  mine  workers  and 
mines.  We  therefore  favor  the  scientific  investigation  of  the  whole 
subject  of  mine  accidents  by  the  Governments  participating  in  this 
conference,  the  interchange  of  information  and  experience,  and  the 
enactment  and  enforcement  of  the  best  regulations  that  can  be  devised. 

Mineral  fertilizers  should  not  be  monopolized  by  private  interests 
but  should  be  so  controlled  by  public  authority  as  to  prevent  waste  and 
to  promote  their  production  in  such  quantity  and  at  such  price  as  to 
make  them  readily  available  for  use. 

PROTECTION  OE  GAME. 

We  recognize  that  game  preservation  and  the  protection  of  bird 
life  are  intimately  associated  with  the  conservation  of  natural  re¬ 
sources.  We  therefore  favor  game  protection  under  regulation,  the 


40 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


creation  of  extensive  game  preserves,  and  special  protection  for  such 
birds  as  are  useful  to  agriculture. 


CONSERVATION  COMMISSIONS. 

The  action  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  calling  this  first 
conference  to  consider  the  conservation  of  the  natural  resources  of 
North  America  was  in  the  highest  degree  opportune,  and  the  proceedings 
which  have  followed,  and  the  information  mutually  communicated  by 
the  representatives  assembled,  have,  we  believe,  been  conducive  to 
the  best  interests  of  the  countries  participating.  To  derive  the  greatest 
possible  benefit  from  the  work  which  has  already  been  done,  and  to  pro¬ 
vide  proper  and  effective  machinery  for  future  work,  there  should  be 
established  in  each  country  a  permanent  Conservation  Commission. 

When  such  Conservation  Commissions  have  been  established,  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  intercommunication  should  be  inaugurated,  whereby,  at  stated 
intervals,  all  discoveries,  inventions,  processes,  inventories  of  natural 
resources,  information  of  a  new  and  specially  important  character, 
and  seeds,  seedlings,  new  or  improved  varieties,  and  other  productions 
which  are  of  value  in  conserving  or  improving  any  natural  resource 
shall  be  transmitted  by  each  Commission  to  all  of  the  others,  to  the 
end  that  they  may  be  adopted  and  utilized  as  widely  as  possible. 


WORLD  CONSERVATION  CONFERENCE. 

The  conference  of  delegates,  representatives  of  the  United  States, 
Mexico,  Canada,  and  Newfoundland,  having  exchanged  views  and 
considered  the  information  supplied  from  the  respective  countries,  is 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  the  movement  for  the  conservation 
of  natural  resources  on  the  continent  of  North  America,  and  believes 
that  it  is  of  such  a  nature  and  of  such  general  importance  that  it 
should  become  worldwide  in  its  scope,  and  therefore  suggests  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States  of  America  that  all  Nations  should  be 
invited  to  join  together  in  conference  on  the  subject  of  world  resources 
and  their  inventory,  conservation,  and  wise  utilization. 


Romulo  Escobar, 

Miguel  A.  De  Ouevedo, 
Carlos  Sellerier, 

Commissioners  Reprc 
senting  the  Republii 
of  Mexico. 


Gifford  Pinchot,  Sydney  Fisher, 

Robert  Bacon,  Clifford  Sifton, 

James  Rudolph  Garfield,  Henri  S.  Beland, 

Commissioners  Repre-  Commissioners  Repre¬ 
senting  the  United  senting  the  Domin- 

States.  ion  of  Canada. 

E.  H.  OUTERBRIDGE, 

Commissioner  Representing  the  Colony  of  Nezvfoundland. 
Attest : 

Robert  E.  Young, 

Thomas  R.  Shipp, 

Secretaries  of  the  Conference. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  February  23,  1909. 


WORLD  CONSERVATION  CONFERENCE. 

The  proposed  World  Conservation  Conference  to  which  reference  is 
made  in  the  Declaration  of  Principles  was  invited  in  the  following 
letter  addressed  to  forty-five  nations: 

Department  oe  State, 

Washington,  February  19,  1909. 

Sir:  There  is  now  assembled  in  Washington,  in  response  to  the  in¬ 
vitation  of  the  President,  a  conference  of  representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  Mexico  and  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  to  meet  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  United  States  of  America  for  the  purpose  of  con¬ 
sidering  the  common  interests  of  the  three  countries  in  the  conserva¬ 
tion  of  their  natural  resources.  The  cordiality  with  which  the  neigh¬ 
boring  governments  accepted  the  invitation  is  no  less  an  augury  of  the 
success  of  this  important  movement  than  is  the  disposition  already 
shown  by  the  conference  to  recognize  the  magnitude  of  the  question  be¬ 
fore  them.  While  recognizing  the  imperative  necessity  for  the  de¬ 
velopment  and  use  of  the  great  resources  upon  which  the  civilization 
and  prosperity  of  Nations  must  depend,  the  American  Governments 
realize  the  vital  need  of  arresting  the  inroads  improvidently  or  un¬ 
necessarily  made  upon  their  natural  wealth.  They  comprehend  also 
that,  as  to  many  of  their  national  resources,  more  than  a  merely  con¬ 
servative  treatment  is  required;  that  reparatory  agencies  should  be 
invoked  to  aid  the  processes  of  beneficent  nature,  and  that  the  means 
of  restoration  and  increase  should  be  sought  whenever  practicable. 
They  see  that  to  the  task  of  devising  economical  expenditure  of  re¬ 
sources,  which,  once  gone,  are  lost  forever,  there  should  be  super¬ 
posed  the  duty  of  restoring  and  maintaining  productiveness  wherever 
impaired  or  menaced  by  wastefulness.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
American  hemisphere  destruction  and  waste  bring  other  evils  in  their 
train.  The  removal  of  forests,  for  instance,  results  in  the  aridity  of 
vast  tracts,  torrential  rainfalls  break  down  and  carry  away  the  unpro¬ 
tected  soil,  and  regions  once  abundant  in  vegetable  and  animal  life  be¬ 
come  barren.  This  is  a  lesson  almost  as  old  as  the  human  race.  The 
older  countries  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  the  Orient  teach  a  lesson  in 
this  regard  which  has  been  too  little  heeded. 

.  AntlclPatmg  the  wide  interest  which  would  naturally  be  aroused 
m  other  countries  by  the  present  North  American  Conference,  the 
resident  foresaw  the  probability  that  it  would  be  the  precursor  of  a 
world  congress.  By  an  Aide-Memoire  of  the  6th  of  January  last  the 
principal  governments  were  informally  sounded  to  ascertain  whether 


41 


42 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


they  would  look  with  favor  upon  an  invitation  to  send  delegates  to 
such  a  conference.  The  responses  have  so  far  been  uniformly  favor¬ 
able,  and  the  Conference  of  Washington  has  suggested  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent  that  a  similar  general  conference  be  called  by  him.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  feels,  therefore,  that  it  is  timely  to  initiate  the  suggested  World 
Conference  for  the  Conservation  of  National  Resources,  by  a  formal 
invitation. 

By  direction  of  the  President  and  with  the  concurrence  of  Her 
Majesty  the  Queen  of  the  Netherlands,  an  invitation  is  extended  to 
the  Government  of  (name  of  country)  to  send  delegates  to  a  con¬ 
ference  to  be  held  at  The  Hague,  at  such  date  as  may  be  found  con¬ 
venient,  there  to  meet  and  consult  the  like  delegates  of  the  other 
countries,  with  a  view  to  considering  a  general  plan  for  an  inventory 
of  the  natural  resources  of  the  world  and  to  devising  a  uniform  scheme 
for  the  expression  of  the  results  of  such  inventory  to  the  end  that 
there  may  be  a  general  understanding  and  appreciation  of  the  world’s 
supply  of  the  material  elements  which  underlie  the  development  of 
civilization  and  the  welfare  of  the  peoples  of  the  earth.  It  would  be 
appropriate  also  for  the  Conference  to  consider  the  general  phases  of 
the  correlated  problem  of  checking  and,  when  possible,  repairing  the 
injuries  caused  by  the  waste  and  destruction  of  natural  resources  and 
utilities,  and  make  recommendations^  in  the  interest  of  their  conserva¬ 
tion,  development,  and  replenishment. 

With  such  a  world  inventory  and  such  recommendations  the  various 
producing  countries  of  the  whole  world  would  be  in  a  better  position 
to  cooperate,  each  for  its  own  good  and  all  for  the  good  of  all,  to¬ 
wards  the  safeguarding  and  betterment  of  their  common  means  of 
support.  As  was  said  in  the  preliminary  Aide-Memoire  of  January  6th : 

“The  people  of  the  whole  world  are  interested  in  the  natural  re¬ 
sources  of  the  whole  world,  benefited  by  their  conservation  and  in¬ 
jured  by  their  destruction.  The  people  of  every  country  are  interested 
in  the  supply  of  food  and  of  material  for  manufacture  in  every  other 
country,  not  only  because  these  are  interchangeable  through  processes 
of  trade,  but  because  a  knowledge  of  the  total  supply  is  necessary  to 
the  intelligent  treatment  of  each  nation’s  share  of  the  supply.” 

Nor  is  this  all.  A  knowledge  of  the  continuance  and  stability  of 
perennial  and  renewable  resources  is  no  less  important  to  the  world 
than  a  knowledge  of  the  quantity  or  the  term  remaining  for  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  those  resources  which  when  consumed  are  irreplaceable.  As 
to  all  the  great  natural  sources  of  national  welfare,  the  peoples  of  to¬ 
day  hold  the  earth  in  trust  for  the  peoples  to  come  after  them.  Read¬ 
ing  the  lessons  of  the  past  aright,  it  would  be  for  such  a  conference  to 
look  beyond  the  present  to  the  future. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4  43 

You  will  communicate  the  foregoing  to  the  Government  of 
(name  of  country)  with  the  expression  of  the  President’s  hope  that  we 
may  be  soon  informed  of  its  acceptance  of  the  invitation.  You  will  at 
the  same  time  inform  His  Excellency  that  upon  informal  inquiry  a 
gratifying  assurance  of  the  sympathy  of  the  Government  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  has  been  received. 

I  am,  sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 


Robert  Bacon. 


SUMMARY  OF  BULLETINS  I,  II,  AND  III,  ISSUED  IN  JUNE, 

JULY,  AND  AUGUST,  1908. 


Bulletins  I,  II,  and  III  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission 
were  progress  reports  issued  in  June,  July,  and  August,  1908.  They 
presented  the  story  of  the  organization  of  the  Conservation  movement 
and  the  development  of  the  work  during  the  first  months  after  the 
White  House  Conference  of  Governors  in  May.  Bulletin  I  contained 
the  letter  of  the  President  appointing  the  National  Conservation  Com¬ 
mission,  his  letter  reappointing  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission, 
and  the  record  of  the  organizing  session  of  the  Executive  Committee 
of  the  National  Conservation  Commission. 

The  letter  of  the  President  creating  the  National  Conservation  Com¬ 
mission  is  reprinted  here,  together  with  the  substance  of  the  minutes 
of  the  first  meeting  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

Letter  oe  the  President  Appointing  the  National  Conservation 

Commission. 


The  White  House, 
Washington,  June  8,  1908. 

The  recent  Conference  of  Governors  in  the  White  House  confirmed 
and  strengthened  in  the  minds  of  our  people  the  conviction  that  our 
natural  resources  are  being  consumed,  wasted,  and  destroyed  at  a  rate 
which  threatens  them  with  exhaustion.  It  was  demonstrated  that  the 
inevitable  result  of  our  present  course  towards  these  resources,  if  we 
should  persist  in  following  it,  would  ultimately  be  the  impoverishment 
of  our  people.  The  Governors  present  adopted  unanimously  a  Decla¬ 
ration  reciting  the  necessity  for  a  more  careful  conservation  of  the 
foundations  of  our  national  prosperity,  and  recommending  a  more 
effective  cooperation  to  this  end  among  the  States  and  between  the 
States  and  the  Nation.  A  copy  of  this  Declaration  is  enclosed. 

One  of  the  most  useful  among  the  many  useful  recommendations  in 
the  admirable  Declaration  of  the  Governors  relates  to  the  creation  of 
State  commissions  on  the  conservation  of  resources,  to  cooperate  with 
a  Federal  Commission.  This  action  of  the  governors  cannot  be  disre¬ 
garded.  It  is  obviously  the  duty  of  the  Federal  Government  to  accept 
this  invitation  to  cooperate  with  the  States  in  order  to  conserve  the 
natural  resources  of  our  whole  country.  It  is  no  less  clearly  *he  duty 
of  the  President  to  lay  before  the  Federal  Congress  information  as  to 
the  state  of  the  Union  in  relation  to  the  natural  resources,  and  to  recom- 


45 


46 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


mend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary 
and  expedient.  In  order  to  make  such  recommendations  the  President 
must  procure  the  necessary  information.  Accordingly,  I  have  decided 
to  appoint  a  Commission  to  inquire  into  and  advise  me  as  to  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  our  natural  resources,  and  to  cooperate  with  other  bodies  created 
for  a  similar  purpose  by  the  States. 

The  Inland  Waterways  Commission,  appointed  March  14,  1907, 
which  suggested  the  Conference  of  Governors,  was  asked  to  consider 
the  other  natural  resources  related  to  our  inland  waterways,  and  it  has 
done  so.  But  the  two  subjects  together  have  grown  too  large  to  be 
dealt  with  by  the  original  body.  The  creation  of  a  Commission  on  the 
Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  will  thus  promote  the  special  work 
for  which  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission  was  created,  and  for 
which  it  has  just  been  continued  and  enlarged,  by  enabling  it  to  concen¬ 
trate  on  its  principal  task.* 

The  Commission  on  the  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources  will  be 
organized  in  four  sections  to  consider  the  four  great  classes  of  water 
resources,  forest  resources,  resources  of  the  land,  and  mineral  re¬ 
sources.  I  am  asking  the  members  of  the  Inland  Waterways  Commis¬ 
sion  to  form  the  Section  of  Waters  of  the  National  Conservation  Com¬ 
mission.  In  view  of  the  lateness  of  the  season  and  the  difficulty  of 
assembling  the  members  of  the  sections  at  this  time,  a  Chairman  and  a 
Secretary  for  each  Section  have  been  designated,  and  the  chairmen 
and  secretaries  of  the  sections  will  act  as  the  Executive  Committee, 
with  a  chairman  who  will  also  be  Chairman  of  the  entire  Commission. 
I  earnestly  hope  that  you  will  consent  to  act  as  a  member  of  the  Com¬ 
mission.! 

One  of  the  principal  objects  of  the  Federal  Commission  on  the  Con¬ 
servation  of  Natural  Resources  will  be  to  cooperate  with  correspond¬ 
ing  commissions  or  other  agencies  appointed  on  behalf  of  the  States, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  Governors  and  their  appointees  will  join  with 
the  Federal  Commission  in  working  out  and  developing  a  plan  whereby 
the  needs  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  and  of  each  State  and  Territory 
may  be  equitably  met. 

The  work  of  the  Commission  should  be  conditioned  upon  keeping 
ever  in  mind  the  great  fact  that  the  life  of  the  nation  depends  abso- 

*Note:  In  his  letter  reappointing  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission  (Section 
of  Waters)  the  President  added  as  members  Senator  William  B.  Allison,  of 
Iowa,  on  whose  death  Senator  J.  P.  Dolliver,  of  Iowa,  was  appointed  to  the 
vacancy;  Hon.  Joseph  E.  Ransdell,  of  Louisiana;  Prof.  George  F.  Swain,  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  On  the  retirement  of  General  Alexander 
McKenzie  as  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  Gen.  W.  L.  Marshall,  his  successor, 
took  his  place  on  the  Commission.  Rear  Admiral  C.  S.  Sperry  was  later  added 
to  the  Commission. 

tThe  personnel  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission  will  be  found  inside 
the  front  cover. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


47 


lutely  on  the  material  resources,  which  have  already  made  the  nation 
great.  Our  object  is  to  conserve  the  foundations  of  our  prosperity. 
We  intend  to  use  these  resources;  but  to  so  use  them  as  to  conserve 
them.  No  effort  should  be  made  to  limit  the  wise  and  proper  develop¬ 
ment  and  application  of  these  resources ;  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  prevent  destruction,  to  reduce  waste,  and  to  distribute  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  our  natural  wealth  in  such  a  way  as  to  promote  the  greatest 
good  of  the  greatest  number  for  the  longest  time. 

The  Commission  must  keep  in  mind  the  further  fact  that  all  the 
natural  resources  are  so  related  that  their  use  may  be,  and  should  be, 
coordinated.  Thus,  the  development  of  water  transportation,  which 
requires  less  iron  and  less  coal  than  rail  transportation,  will  reduce  the 
draft  on  mineral  resources;  the  judicious  development  of  forests  will 
not  only  supply  fuel  and  structural  material,  but  increase  the  naviga¬ 
bility  of  streams,  and  so  promote  water  transportation ;  and  the  control 
of  streams  will  reduce  soil  erosion  and  permit  American  farms  to 
increase  in  fertility  and  productiveness  and  so  continue  to  feed  the 
country  and  maintain  a  healthy  and  beneficial  foreign  commerce.  The 
proper  coordination  of  the  use  of  our  resources  is  a  prime  requisite  for 
continued  national  prosperity. 

The  recent  conference  of  the  governors,  of  the  men  who  are  the 
direct  sponsors  for  the  well-being  of  the  States,  was  notable  in  many 
respects ;  in  none  more  than  in  this,  that  the  dignity,  the  autonomy, 
and  yet  the  interdependence  and  mutual  dependence  of  the  several 
States  were  all  emphasized  and  brought  into  clear  relief,  as  rarely 
before  in  our  history.  There  is  no  break  between  the  interests  of 
State  and  nation ;  these  interests  are  essentially  one.  Hearty  coopera¬ 
tion  between  the  State  and  the  national  agencies  is  essential  to  the 
permanent  welfare  of  the  people.  You,  on  behalf  of  the  Federal 
Government,  will  do  your  part  to  bring  about  this  cooperation. 

In  order  to  make  available  to  the  National  Conservation  Commis¬ 
sion  all  the  information  and  assistance  which  it  may  desire  from  the 
Federal  departments,  I  shall  issue  an  Executive  Order  directing  them 
to  give  such  help  as  the  Commission  may  need. 

The  next  session  of  Congress  will  end  on  March  4,  1909.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  I  should  be  glad  to  have  at  least  a  preliminary  report  from  the 
Commission  not  later  than  January  1st  of  next  year. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Theodore  Roosevelt. 


48 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Abstract  oe  the  Record  of  the  Organizing  Session  of  the  Exec¬ 
utive  Committee  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission. 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  National  Conservation  Commission 
held  its  organizing  session  in  Chicago  on  June  19,  1908,  and  elected 
Thomas  R.  Shipp,  of  Indiana,  Secretary  of  the  Commission. 

The  Committee  approved  the  Chairman’s  suggestion  that  the  Gov¬ 
ernors  of  the  States  be  invited  to  participate,  either  personally  or 
through  representatives,  in  a  meeting  of  the  National  Conservation 
Commission,  after  an  initial  meeting  of  the  Commission  to  perfect  its 
organization  and  adopt  a  plan  for  its  report.  The  date  for  this  first 
general  meeting  of  the  Commission  was  set  for  Tuesday,  December  1. 
It  was  agreed  that  the  Executive  Committee  should  have  an  outline 
report  ready  for  discussion  at  this  session  and  that  the  Chairman 
should  invite  the  Governors  to  the  joint  meeting  early  in  December, 
the  exact  time  and  place  to  be  fixed  by  him. 

The  Chairman  announced  that  the  President  had  issued  an  Execu¬ 
tive  Order  to  heads  of  Departments,  instructing  them  to  cooperate  with 
the  National  Conservation  Commission.  On  motion  by  Mr.  Burton,  it 
was  decided  that  in  the  collection  of  information  the  Chairman  and  the 
Secretary  of  each  Section  should  act  in  behalf  of  that  Section  and  that 
the  data  should  be  coordinated  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Commission ; 
and  by  general  agreement  the  Chairman  was  instructed  to  obtain  such 
assistance  as  might  be  required  for  the  preparation  of  special  state¬ 
ments  and  reports. 

Upon  the  suggestion  of  Senator  Nelson,  it  was  agreed  that  the 
Chairman  should  have  a  codification  of  the  land  laws  of  the  United 
States  begun  at  an  early  date,  with  a  view  to  a  report  in  December. 

Early  Progress. 

Bulletin  II,  issued  on  July  15,  1908,  was  a  record  of  the  progress 
which  had  been  made  by  the  National  Conservation  Commission  during 
the  first  month  of  its  existence.  The  inventory  of  the  natural  resources 
of  the  United  States  in  cooperation  with  the  Executive  Departments  of 
the  Government  was  at  that  time  well  under  way.  Bureau  Chiefs  were 
actively  engaged  in  the  collection  of  the  material  needed.  Mr.  Henry 
Gannett,  Geographer  of  the  Commission,  was  compiling  the  informa¬ 
tion  as  it  was  gathered.  The  bulletin  announced  that  within  less  than 
one  month  from  the  date  of  the  President’s  letter  appointing  the  Com¬ 
mission  and  advising  the  Governors  that  he  had  done  so,  the  Governors 
of  five  States  had  named  Conservation  Commissions  and  the  Governors 
of  several  other  States  had  announced  their  intention  to  do  so  in  the 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


49 


near  future.  Other  Governors  had  expressed  their  intention  of  making 
strong  recommendations  to  their  respective  legislatures  for  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  such  Commissions.  National  organizations  had  already  begun 
to  display  an  active  interest  in  the  Conservation  movement  by  appoint¬ 
ing  Conservation  Committees  to  act  in  cooperation  with  the  National 
Conservation  Commission. 


Schedule  oe  Inquiries. 

Bulletin  III  contained  the  Schedule  of  Inquiries  of  the  Commission, 
chiefly  interesting  now  as  showing  the  general  lines  along  which  work 
on  the  inventory  of  natural  resources  was  pursued.  It  is  as  follows : 

A — Lands. 

Public  Land  Laws: 

1.  What  have  been  the  policies  and  results  of  our  public  land  system? 

2.  What  specific  changes  are  necessary  in  the  public  land  laws  to  promote  the 
best  permanent  use  of  the  land? 

3.  Preparation  of  a  Code  of  Public  Land  Laws. 

Tenure: 

4.  Is  the  tendency  towards  larger  or  smaller  individual  holdings  generally?  In 
anv  region?  a.  Farm  lands,  b.  Timber  lands,  c.  Mineral  lands. 

5.  What  are  the  causes  for  this  tendency? 

Agricultural  Production: 

6.  Is  crop  production  per  acre  increasing  or  diminishing  in  the  country  at 
large?  In  any  States  or  groups  of  States?  What  are  the  causes  of  this  change? 

7.  If  it  has  diminished,  why  has  it  diminished?  a.  Loss  of  soil  fertility,  b. 
Erosion  and  soil  wash.  c.  Bad  agricultural  methods,  d.  Economic  causes,  e. 
Losses  due  to  injurious  insects  and  mammals. 

8.  How  can  soil  erosion  be  reduced?  a.  Forest  cover,  b.  Contour  cultivation 
and  terracing,  c.  Deep  cultivation,  d.  Maintaining  mulch  and  humus. 

0.  To  what  extent  is  increased  crop  production  per  acre  likely  to  be  needed? 

10.  How  can  it  be  brought  about?  a.  Checking  erosion  and  soil  wash.  b.  Im¬ 
proved  methods  of  agriculture,  c.  Improved  conditions  of  rural  life.  d.  Control 
of  injurious  insects  and  mammals. 

The  Public  Range: 

11.  To  what  extent,  in  degree  and  area,  has  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  public 
range  decreased? 

12.  Why  has  this  decrease  occurred? 

13-  How  can  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  public  range  be  improved  and  main¬ 
tained? 

Swamp  and  Overflow  Lands: 

14.  How  much  swamp  land  is  there  in  the  United  States? 

15.  How  are  swamp  lands  owned? 

16.  How  much  swamp  and  overflowed  land  has  been  reclaimed? 

17.  At  what  cost? 

18.  With  what  results? 

19.  How  much  more  swamp  and  overflowed  land  can  be  reclaimed? 

20.  At  what  estimated  cost? 

21.  With  what  probable  results? 


4— cc 


50 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


B — Waters  (Irrigation). 

1.  How  much  land  is  now  under  irrigation? 

2.  How  much  more  land  can  be  irrigated?  . 

3.  What  agencies  are  developing  irrigation?  a.  Individual,  b.  Corporate,  c. 

State,  d.  National.  .  .  .  „  ,  .  .  . 

4.  Do  present  laws  tend  to  promote  irrigation  fully  and  wisely? 

5.  Upon  what  modification  of  law  will  the  best  permanent  development  of 
irrigation  systems  depend? 

6.  Relation  of  irrigation  to  a.  Forests,  b.  Navigation,  c.  Power,  d.  Domestic 
and  municipal  water  supply,  e.  Drainage,  f.  Floods. 

Supplemental  Data: 

1.  The  annual  rainfall  for  each  year,  at  all  stations,  regular  and  voluntary, 

with  the  mean  of  the  years  of  observation. 

2.  The  annual  flow  of  all  streams  measured  and  mean  annual  flow  of  all  years 

observed,  with  area  of  basins. 

C — Waters  (Navigation). 

1.  How  far  has  the  use  of  inland  waterways  for  traffic  decreased? 

2.  What  are  the  reasons  for  this  decrease?  a.  Railroad  competition:  Reduction 
of  rates  when  in  competition  with  water  lines;  Control  of  terminals;  Control  of 
river  lines,  b.  Inadequate  river  improvement,  c.  Fluctuation  and  silting  up  of 
navigable  streams. 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  an  adequate  system  of  inland  waterways  tor 
navigation?  a.  Cost  of  water  traffic,  b.  Cost  of  rail  traffic,  c.  Reduced  con¬ 
sumption  of  coal  and  wood.  d.  Influence  of  water  traffic  on  rail  traffic,  e.  Need 
of  waterway  development  to  meet  transportation  requirements,  f.  Influence  of 
cheapened  transportation  on  production  and  commerce. 

4.  How  can  our  inland  waterways  be  fully  utilized  for  traffic? 

'  General  data  upon  :  Growth  of  transportation  in  the  United  States  by  water 
and  rail— present  systems  and  facilities — urgent  lines  of  development — prospective 
needs — inland  waterways  systems  of  other  countries — their  cost  of  construction 
and  maintenance,  relation  to  railroads,  rates,  and  volume  of  traffic,  effect  upon 
production  and  commerce. 


D— Waters  (Power). 

x  1.  What  are  the  developed  water  powers  of  the  United  States? 

2.  What  are  the  undeveloped  water  powers  of  the  United  States?  a.  On  navi¬ 
gable  streams,  b.  On  unnavigable  streams. 

3.  Are  existing  developed  water  powers  put  to  their  full  use? 

4.  Is  there  a  tendency  towards  consolidation  of  control  of  water  powers? 

5.  To  what  extent  are  water  powers  in  the  possession  of  corporations  subject 
to  State  or  Federal  control? 

6.  To  what  extent  can  coal  be  saved  by  the  substitution  of  water  power? 

E — Waters  (Flood  Waters). 

1.  Are  floods  increasing,  and  if  so,  why? 

2.  To  what  extent  are  flood  waters  wasted? 

3.  How  much  damage  do  they  do? 

4.  To  what  extent  could  flood  waters  be  stored?  a.  By  forests,  b.  By  reser¬ 
voirs. 

5.  What  would  this  cost? 

6.  How  much  would  it  save? 


F — Forests. 

1.  Original  forests  of  the  United  States,  a.  Location,  b.  Area.  c.  Species. 

d.  Stand.  _ 

2.  How  much  timber  is  left?  a.  In  woodlots.  b.  In  the  hands  of  corporations, 
companies,  or  large  private  owners,  c.  In  the  possession  of  the  States,  d.  In  the 
possession  of  the  Federal  Government,  e.  Give  kind  and  quality  for  each  of 
above  cases. 


PROGRESS  BULLETIN  NO.  4 


51 


1  ?u  H(T  timber  is  used  annually,  and  where  is  it  cut?  a.  For  lumber 

3’  and  shingles,  b.  For  fuel  c.  For  ties.  d.  For  pulpwood.  *.  For  cooper¬ 
age.  f.  For  mine  timbers,  g.  Tanbark.  h.  For  distillation,  i.  For  veneer  k 

h  or  posts  and  poles.  /.  For  other  purposes,  w.  Give  kind  and  quality  for  each 
ot  above  cases. 

4.  Past  and  present  prices  of  forest  products. 

5.  How  fast  is  timber  being  produced  under  present  conditions?  a.  By  species 

fr.  By  classes  (sawlogs,  poles,  etc.),  c.  By  regions.  7  P 

o.  How  much  can  the  productiveness  of  our  forests  be  increased  through 

?eTuPrensmanagemen  *  Meth°dS  t0  be  Used'  *■  SPecies  which  Promise  best 

7.  How  long  will  the  supply  last  jf  present  tendencies  are  unchecked? 

_  t^°pi  r  we  ,c0“nt  on  foreign  sources  of  supply?  a.  Canada,  b.  Alaska 
Ph,Jlp?ine?*  d ■  Central  and  South  America.  Other  countries 
9.  Mow  do  the  forest  resources,  consumption  and  prices  of  forest  products  and 
uses  of  timber  in  the  United  States  compare  with  those  in  other  countries ? 

xo  M  anyH  b •  ^ranCG-  ci  rEngland-  d ■  Rllssia-  *•  Scandinavia.  /India  ' 

wllh  United  States  C0mpare 

inVhe^ted'statesr18"  me‘h°dS  °f  f°reSt  administration  suited  to  conditions 

12.  How  far  are  our  present  timber  supplies  being  wasted  or  future  supplies 
reduced  through  a.  Forest  fires,  b.  Turpentining,  c.  Careless  logg  ng  rf  Was  e 
ful  mill  operations  e.  Overproduction,  f.  Wasteful  use  of  wood  g  Excessive 

ducinrof  ie0aH4  forSagricu1ttf  °nment  °f  la"dS  wWch  are  n0t  rePr°- 

gg 

'  Economical  min  operations,  e.  Utilization  of  waste  materials  by  chemical  or 
other  means  /.  Regulated  production,  g.  Economical  use  of  wood— preserva- 
nntd  ,substltutes\  h ■  Forest  legislation  which  encourages  the  holding  of  timber 
until  the  proper  time  to  cut,  and  which  facilitates  the  managing  of  cuUover  lands 

planting  Cr°P'  *  *'  meth°ds  °f  taxation'  Protecfion.  e£°T  Forest 

'4r  U’fl-  is  th(e  fundamental  relation  between  forests  and  stream-flow  >  a  In 
the  regulation  of  discharge,  b.  In  lessening  erosion  an  now.  a.  in 

of  our  cMlizaifon"  d°  ‘he  f°reS‘S  SUStain  ‘°  °Ur  great  industries  and  the  needs 

-S  ■”  x  tuss^sr..  % 

G — Minerals. 

(OTalA£SinSieras)ntiirT0ron0Ur  existinS  mineral  resources:  a.  Mineral  fuels 
v coal,  lignite,  oil,  gas)  b.  Iron  ores.  c.  Other  ores  and  minerals 

a  Sr°bable  d“ration  of  the  supply  of  each  important  mineral 
products.  ^  and  GX  °f  WaStG  m  the  mining  extraction,  and  use  of  mineral 

5-  Methods  of  preventing  or  lessening  this  waste. 

.  -fd-Owr  can  the  duration  of  mineral  resource*;  he  pYfpnriori  ?  r*  1 
zation  of  by-products  b  Prevention ‘  5  ^extended?  a.  Complete  utih- 

SFMSS  ^  „dseDiSC0Very  and  ‘••veuSoMKr  mat": 

stnictfve'agendes.  ^ExttnfoTsuch  deferiomfion^and'losf^rN  fthr0Uf 
action  and  methods  of  preventing  it.  1  d  b‘  Nature  of  such 


52 


NATIONAL  CONSERVATION  COMMISSION 


Other  Resources. 

Life  and  Property: 

1.  Conservation  of  life  and  property  in  mining:  a.  Nature  and  extent  of  loss 
of  life  in  mining,  b.  Nature  and  extent  of  property  losses  in  mining,  c.  Causes 
and  probable  prevention  of  mine  accidents,  mine  fires,  etc. 

2.  Conservation  of  life  and  property  through  prevention  of  surface  fires:  a. 
Nature  and  extent  of  the  loss  of  life  from  fires,  b.  Nature  and  extent  of  the  loss 
of  property  from  fires,  c.  Total  cost  of  fire  losses,  fire  insurance,  systems  of 
fighting  fires,  water  systems  for  same,  etc.  d.  Possible  prevention  of  such  fires 
through  :  The  investigation  of  fire-resisting  properties  of  materials ;  The  investi¬ 
gation  of  fire-proofing  systems ;  Changes  in  building  materials  and  systems. 

Live  Stock: 

3.  Live  Stock :  Diseases,  and  amount  of  losses,  direct  and  indirect. 

Fish  and  Game: 

4.  Fish:  Annual  take  by  species,  condition  of  supply,  measures  taken  to  re- 
stock 

5.  Game :  Condition  and  distribution  of  supply,  annual  destruction  and  natural 
increase. 


Address  of  President  Roosevelt 
at  the  opening  of  t  ie  Conference 
on  the  Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources,  at  the  White  House 
Wednesday  morning,  May  13 
1908,  at  10:30  o’clock 


ALTGELD  HALL  STACKS 


Washington 

Government  Printing  Office 


From  the  Jihrartj  of' 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 

OCKERSON 

CIAS5  Of  1  5  7  3 
Presented  AN  ail  1,1 024 
bti  hisWidow  CL  AKA 
SHACK  EIFORD  OCKERSON 


330.  f  ^3 

Pile 

fa,  8 


330^75 

P <i_ 

~TLO>  % 


Address  of  President  Roosevelt 
at  the  opening  of  the  Conference 
on  the  Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources,  at  the  White  House 
Wednesday  morning,  May  13 
1908,  at  10:30  o’clock 


Washington 

Government  Printing  Office 


1908 


Governors  of  the  several  States;  and  Gen¬ 
tlemen: 

I  welcome  you  to  this  conference  at 
the  White  House.  You  have  come  hither 
at  my  request  so  that  we  may  join  together 
to  consider  the  question  of  the  conserva¬ 
tion  and  use  of  the  great  fundamental 
sources  of  wealth  of  this  Nation.  So 
vital  is  this  question,  that  for  the  first  time 
in  our  history  the  chief  executive  officers 


2 


of  the  States  separately,  and  of  the  States 
together  forming  the  Nation,  have  met  to 
consider  it. 

With  the  governors  come  men  from 
each  State  chosen  for  their  special  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  the  terms  of  the  problem  that  is 
before  us.  Among  them  are  experts  in 
natural  resources  and  representatives  of 
national  organizations  concerned  in  the 
development  and  use  of  these  resources; 
the  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Con¬ 
gress;  the  Supreme  Court,  the  Cabinet, 


3 


and  the  Inland  Waterways  Commission 
have  likewise  been  invited  to  the  confer¬ 
ence,  which  is  therefore  national  in  a 
peculiar  sense. 

This  conference  on  the  conservation 
of  natural  resources  is  in  effect  a  meeting 
of  the  representatives  of  all  the  people  of 
the  United  States  called  to  consider  the 
weightiest  problem  now  before  the  Nation; 
and  the  occasion  for  the  meeting  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  natural  resources  of  our  coun¬ 


try  are  in  danger  of  exhaustion  if  we  per- 


4 

mit  the  old  wasteful  methods  of  exploiting 
them  longer  to  continue. 

With  the  rise  of  peoples  from  savagery 
to  civilization,  and  with  the  consequent 
growth  in  the  extent  and  variety  of  the 
needs  of  the  average  man,  there  comes  a 
steadily  increasing  growth  of  the  amount 
demanded  by  this  average  man  from  the 
actual  resources  of  the  country.  Yet, 
rather  curiously,  at  the  same  time  the 
average  man  is  apt  to  lose  his  realization 
of  this  dependence  upon  nature. 


5 


Savages,  and  very  primitive  peoples 
generally,  concern  themselves  only  with 
superficial  natural  resources;  with  those 
which  they  obtain  from  the  actual  surface  of 
the  ground.  As  peoples  become  a  little 
less  primitive,  their  industries,  although  in 
a  rude  manner,  are  extended  to  resources 
below  the  surface;  then,  with  what  we  call 
civilization  and  the  extension  of  knowledge, 
more  resources  come  into  use,  industries 
are  multiplied,  and  foresight  begins  to 
become  a  necessary  and  prominent  factor 


6 


in  life.  Crops  are  cultivated;  animals  are 
domesticated;  and  metals  are  mastered. 

Every  step  of  the  progress  of  man¬ 
kind  is  marked  by  the  discovery  and  use 
of  natural  resources  previously  unused. 
Without  such  progressive  knowledge  and 
utilization  of  natural  resources  population 
could  not  grow,  nor  industries  multiply, 
nor  the  hidden  wealth  of  the  earth  be 
developed  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 

From  the  first  beginnings  of  civiliza- 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  and  the 


tion,  on 


7 


Euphrates,  the  industrial  progress  of  the 
world  has  gone  on  slowly,  with  occasional 
setbacks,  but  on  the  whole  steadily,  through 
tens  of  centuries  to  the  present  day.  But 
of  late  the  rapidity  of  the  process  has  in¬ 
creased  at  such  a  rate  that  more  space  has 
been  actually  covered  during  the  century 
and  a  quarter  occupied  by  our  national  life 
than  during  the  preceding  six  thousand 
years  that  take  us  back  to  the  earliest 
monuments  of  Egypt,  to  the  earliest  cities 
of  the  Babylonian  plain. 


8 


When  the  founders  of  this  nation  met 
at  Independence  Hall  in  Philadelphia  the 
conditions  of  commerce  had  not  funda¬ 
mentally  changed  from  what  they  were 
when  the  Phoenician  keels  first  furrowed 
the  lonely  waters  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  differences  were  those  of  degree,  not 
of  kind,  and  they  were  not  in  all  cases 
even  those  of  degree.  Mining  was  carried 
on  fundamentally  as  it  had  been  carried 
on  by  the  Pharaohs  in  the  countries  adja¬ 


cent  to  the  Red  Sea. 


9 


The  wares  of  the  merchants  of  Bos¬ 
ton,  of  Charleston,  like  the  wares  of  the 
merchants  of  Nineveh  and  Sidon,  if  they 
went  by  water,  were  carried  by  boats  pro¬ 
pelled  by  sails  or  oars;  if  they  went  by 
land  were  carried  in  wagons  drawn  by 
beasts  of  draft  or  in  packs  on  the  backs 
of  beasts  of  burden.  The  ships  that 
crossed  the  high  seas  were  better  than 
the  ships  that  had  once  crossed  the 
^Egean,  but  they  were  of  the  same  type, 
after  all — they  were  wooden  ships  pro- 


IO 


pelled  by  sails;  and  on  land,  the  roads 
were  not  as  good  as  the  roads  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  while  the  service  of  the 
posts  was  probably  inferior. 

In  Washington’s  time  anthracite  coal 
was  known  only  as  a  useless  black  stone ; 
and  the  great  fields  of  bituminous  coal 
were  undiscovered.  As  steam  was  un¬ 
known,  the  use  of  coal  for  power  produc¬ 
tion  was  undreamed  of.  Water  was 
practically  the  only  source  of  power,  save 
the  labor  of  men  and  animals;  and  this 


power  was  used  only  in  the  most  primi¬ 
tive  fashion.  But  a  few  small  iron  depos¬ 
its  had  been  found  in  this  country,  and 
the  use  of  iron  by  our  countrymen  was 
very  small.  Wood  was  practically  the 
only  fuel,  and  what  lumber  was  sawed 
was  consumed  locally,  while  the  forests 
were  regarded  chiefly  as  obstructions  to 
settlement  and  cultivation. 

Such  was  the  degree  of  progress  to 
which  civilized  mankind  had  attained 


when  this  nation  began  its  career.  It  is 


12 


almost  impossible  for  us  in  this  day  to 
realize  how  little  our  Revolutionary  ances¬ 
tors  knew  of  the  great  store  of  natural 
resources  whose  discovery  and  use  have 
been  such  vital  factors  in  the  growth  and 
greatness  of  this  nation,  and  how  little 
they  required  to  take  from  this  store  in 
order  to  satisfy  their  needs. 

Since  then  our  knowledge  and  use  of 
the  resources  of  the  present  territory  of  the 
United  States  have  increased  a  hundred¬ 


fold.  Indeed,  the  growth  of  this  Nation  by 


13 

leaps  and  bounds  makes  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  important  chapters  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  world.  Its  growth  has  been  due 
to  the  rapid  development,  and  alas!  that 

i 

it  should  be  said,  to  the  rapid  destruction, 
of  our  natural  resources.  Nature  has  sup¬ 
plied  to  us  in  the  United  States,  and  still 
supplies  to  us,  more  kinds  of  resources  in  a 
more  lavish  degree  than  has  ever  been  the 
case  at  any  other  time  or  with  any  other 
people.  Our  position  in  the  world  has 
been  attained  by  the  extent  and  thorough- 


14 


ness  of  the  control  we  have  achieved  over 
nature;  but  we  are  more,  and  not  less, 
dependent  upon  what  she  furnishes  than  at 
any  previous  time  of  history  since  the 
days  of  primitive  man. 

Yet  our  fathers,  though  they  knew  so 
little  of  the  resources  of  the  country,  exer¬ 
cised  a  wise  forethought  in  reference 
thereto.  Washington  clearly  saw  that  the 
perpetuity  of  the  States  could  only  be  se¬ 
cured  by  union,  and  that  the  only  feasible 
basis  of  union  was  an  economic  one;  in 


i5 

other  words,  that  it  must  be  based  on  the 
development  and  use  of  their  natural  re¬ 
sources.  Accordingly,  he  helped  to  out¬ 
line  a  scheme  of  commercial  development, 
and  by  his  influence  an  interstate  water¬ 
ways  commission  was  appointed  by  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  Maryland. 

It  met  near  where  we  are  now  meet¬ 
ing,  in  Alexandria,  adjourned  to  Mount 
Vernon,  and  took  up  the  consideration  of 
interstate  commerce  by  the  only  means 
then  available,  that  of  water.  Further 


1 6 


conferences  were  arranged,  first  at  An¬ 
napolis  and  then  at  Philadelphia.  It  was 
in  Philadelphia  that  the  representatives  of 
all  the  States  met  for  what  was  in  its 
original  conception  merely  a  waterways 
conference;  but  when  they  had  closed 
their  deliberations  the  outcome  was  the 
Constitution  which  made  the  States  into  a 
Nation. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
thus  grew  in  large  part  out  of  the  necessity 
for  united  action  in  the  wise  use  of  one 


i7 

of  our  natural  resources.  The  wise  use  of 
all  of  our  natural  resources,  which  are  our 
national  resources  as  well,  is  the  great  ma¬ 
terial  question  of  to-day.  I  have  asked 
you  to  come  together  now  because  the 
enormous  consumption  of  these  resources, 
and  the  threat  of  imminent  exhaustion  of 
some  of  them,  due  to  reckless  and  wasteful 
use,  once  more  calls  for  common  effort, 
common  action. 

Since  the  days  when  the  Constitution 
was  adopted,  steam  and  electricity  have 


i8 


revolutionized  the  industrial  world.  No¬ 
where  has  the  revolution  been  so  great  as 
in  our  own  country.  The  discovery  and 
utilization  of  mineral  fuels  and  alloys  have 
given  us  the  lead  over  all  other  nations  in 
the  production  of  steel.  The  discovery 
and  utilization  of  coal  and  iron  have  given 
us  our  railways,  and  have  led  to  such  in¬ 
dustrial  development  as  has  never  before 
been  seen.  The  vast  wealth  of  lumber  in 
our  forests,  the  riches  of  our  soils  and 
mines,  the  discovery  of  gold  and  mineral 


*9 


oils,  combined  with  the  efficiency  of  our 
transportation,  have  made  the  conditions 
of  our  life  unparalleled  in  comfort  and  con- 
venience. 

The  steadily  increasing  drain  on  these 
natural  resources  has  promoted  to  an  ex¬ 
traordinary  degree  the  complexity  of  our 
industrial  and  social  life.  Moreover,  this 
unexampled  development  has  had  a  de¬ 
termining  effect  upon  the  character  and 
opinions  of  our  people.  The  demand  for 
efficiency  in  the  great  task  has  given  us 


20 


vigor,  effectiveness,  decision,  and  power, 
and  a  capacity  for  achievement  which  in 
its  own  lines  has  never  yet  been  matched. 
So  great  and  so  rapid  has  been  our  ma¬ 
terial  growth  that  there  has  been  a  tendency 
to  lag  behind  in  spiritual  and  moral  growth; 
but  that  is  not  the  subject  upon  which  I 
speak  to  you  to-day. 

Disregarding  for  the  moment  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  moral  purpose,  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  prosperity  of  our  people  depends  di¬ 
rectly  on  the  energy  and  intelligence  with 


21 


which  our  natural  resources  are  used.  It 
is  equally  clear  that  these  resources  are 
the  final  basis  of  national  power  and  per¬ 
petuity.  Finally,  it  is  ominously  evident 
that  these  resources  are  in  the  course  of 
rapid  exhaustion. 

This  Nation  began  with  the  belief  that 
its  landed  possessions  were  illimitable  and 
capable  of  supporting  all  the  people  who 
might  care  to  make  our  country  their  home ; 
but  already  the  limit  of  unsettled  land  is 
in  sight,  and  indeed  but  little  land  fitted 


22 


for  agriculture  now  remains  unoccupied 
save  what  can  be  reclaimed  by  irrigation 
and  drainage.  We  began  with  an  unap¬ 
proached  heritage  of  forests;  more  than 

half  of  the  timber  is  gone.  We  began  with 

\ 

coal  fields  more  extensive  than  those  of 
any  other  nation  and  with  iron  ores  re¬ 
garded  as  inexhaustible,  and  many  experts 
now  declare  that  the  end  of  both  iron  and 
coal  is  in  sight. 

The  mere  increase  in  our  consumption 
of  coal  during  1907  over  1906  exceeded 


23 


the  total  consumption  in  1876,  the  Cen¬ 
tennial  year.  The  enormous  stores  of 
mineral  oil  and  gas  are  largely  gone.  Our 
natural  waterways  are  not  gone,  but  they 
have  been  so  injured  by  neglect,  and  by 
the  division  of  responsibility  and  utter 
lack  of  system  in  dealing  with  them,  that 
there  is  less  navigation  on  them  now  than 
there  was  fifty  years  ago.  Finally,  we 
began  with  soils  of  unexampled  fertility 
and  we  have  so  impoverished  them  by 
injudicious  use  and  by  failing  to  check 


24 


erosion  that  their  crop  producing  power 
is  diminishing  instead  of  increasing.  In  a 
word,  we  have  thoughtlessly,  and  to  a 
large  degree  unnecessarily,  diminished  the 
resources  upon  which  not  only  our  pros¬ 
perity  but  the  prosperity  of  our  children 

must  always  depend. 

We  have  become  great  because  of  the 
lavish  use  of  our  resources  and  we  have 
just  reason  to  be  proud  of  our  growth. 
But  the  time  has  come  to  inquire  seriously 
what  will  happen  when  our  forests  are 


25 

gone,  when  the  coal,  the  iron,  the  oil,  and 
the  gas  are  exhausted,  when  the  soils  shall 
have  been  still  further  impoverished  and 
washed  into  the  streams,  polluting  the 
rivers,  denuding  the  fields,  and  obstruct¬ 
ing  navigation.  These  questions  do  not 
relate  only  to  the  next  century  or  to  the 
next  generation.  It  is  time  for  us  now  as 
a  Nation  to  exercise  the  same  reasonable 
foresight  in  dealing  with  our  great  natural 
resources  that  would  be  shown  by  any 
prudent  man  in  conserving  and  widely 


26 


using  the  property  which  contains  the  as¬ 
surance  of  well-being  for  himself  and  his 
children. 

The  natural  resources  I  have  enumer¬ 
ated  can  be  divided  into  two  sharply  dis¬ 
tinguished  classes  accordingly  as  they  are 
or  are  not  capable  of  renewal.  Mines  if 
used  must  necessarily  be  exhausted.  The 
minerals  do  not  and  can  not  renew  them¬ 
selves.  Therefore  in  dealing  with  the  coal, 
the  oil,  the  gas,  the  iron,  the  metals  gen¬ 
erally,  all  that  we  can  do  is  to  try  to  see 


27 

that  they  are  wisely  used.  The  exhaustion 
is  certain  to  come  in  time. 

The  second  class  of  resources  consists 
of  those  which  can  not  only  be  used  in 
such  manner  as  to  leave  them  undimin¬ 
ished  for  our  children,  but  can  actually  be 
improved  by  wise  use.  The  soil,  the  for¬ 
ests,  the  waterways  come  in  this  category. 
In  dealing  with  mineral  resources,  man  is 
able  to  improve  on  nature  only  by  putting 
the  resources  to  a  beneficial  use  which  in 
the  end  exhausts  them;  but  in  dealing  with 


28 


the  soil  and  its  products  man  can  improve 
on  nature  by  compelling  the  resources  to 
renew  and  even  reconstruct  themselves  in 
such  manner  as  to  serve  increasingly  bene¬ 
ficial  uses — while  the  living  waters  can  be 
so  controlled  as  to  multiply  their  benefits. 
Neither  the  primitive  man  nor  the 

; 

pioneer  was  aware  of  any  duty  to  posterity 
in  dealing  with  the  renewable  resources. 
When  the  American  settler  felled  the  for¬ 
ests,  he  felt  that  there  was  plenty  of  forest 
left  for  the  sons  who  came  after  him. 


29 


When  he  exhausted  the  soil  of  his  farm 
he  felt  that  his  son  could  go  West  and 
take  up  another.  So  it  was  with  his  im¬ 
mediate  successors.  When  the  soil-wash 
from  the  farmer’s  fields  choked  the  neigh¬ 
boring  river  he  thought  only  of  using  the 
railway  rather  than  boats  for  moving  his 
produce  and  supplies. 

Now  all  this  is  changed.  On  the 
average  the  son  of  the  farmer  of  to-day 
must  make  his  living  on  his  father’s  farm. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  doing  this  if  the 


3° 


father  will  exercise  wisdom.  No  wise  use 
of  a  farm  exhausts  its  fertility.  So  with 
the  forests.  We  are  over  the  verge  of  a 
timber  famine  in  this  country,  and  it  is 
unpardonable  for  the  Nation  or  the  States 
to  permit  any  further  cutting  of  our  timber 
save  in  accordance  with  a  system  which 
will  provide  that  the  next  generation  shall 
see  the  timber  increased  instead  of  dimin¬ 
ished.  Moreover,  we  can  add  enormous 
tracts  of  the  most  valuable  possible  agricul¬ 
tural  land  to  the  national  domain  by  irriga- 


3i 


tion  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  regions  and 
by  drainage  of  great  tracts  of  swamp  land 
in  the  humid  regions.  We  can  enormously 
increase  our  transportation  facilities  by  the 
canalization  of  our  rivers  so  as  to  com¬ 
plete  a  great  system  of  waterways  on  the 
Pacific,  Atlantic,  and  Gulf  coasts  and  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  from  the  Great  Plains 
to  the  Alleghenies  and  from  the  northern 
lakes  to  the  mouth  of  the  mighty  Father  of 
Waters.  But  all  these  various  uses  of 
our  natural  resources  are  so  closely  con- 


32 


nected  that  they  should  be  coordinated, 
and  should  be  treated  as  part  of  one 
coherent  plan  and  not  in  haphazard  and 
piecemeal  fashion. 

It  is  largely  because  of  this  that  I  ap¬ 
pointed  the  Waterways  Commission  last 
year  and  that  I  have  sought  to  perpetuate 
its  work.  I  wish  to  take  this  opportunity 
to  express  in  heartiest  fashion  my  acknowl¬ 
edgment  to  all  the  members  of  the  Com¬ 
mission.  At  great  personal  sacrifice  of 
time  and  effort  they  have  rendered  a  serv- 


33 

ice  to  the  public  for  which  we  can  not  be 
too  grateful.  Especial  credit  is  due  to  the 
initiative,  the  energy,  the  devotion  to  duty 
and  the  farsightedness  of  Gifford  Pinchot, 
to  whom  we  owe  so  much  of  the  progress 
we  have  already  made  in  handling  this 
matter  of  the  coordination  and  conserva¬ 
tion  of  natural  resources.  If  it  had  not 
been  for  him  this  convention  neither  would 
nor  could  have  been  called. 

We  are  coming  to  recognize  as  never 


before  the  right  of  the  Nation  to  guard 


34 

its  own  future  in  the  essential  matter  of 
natural  resources.  In  the  past  we  have 
admitted  the  right  of  the  individual  to  in¬ 
jure  the  future  of  the  Republic  for  his  own 
present  profit.  The  time  has  come  for  a 
change.  As  a  people  we  have  the  right 
and  the  duty,  second  to  none  other  but 
the  right  and  duty  of  obeying  the  moral 
law,  of  requiring  and  doing  justice,  to 
protect  ourselves  and  our  children  against 
the  wasteful  development  of  our  natural 
resources,  whether  that  waste  is  caused  by 


35 

the  actual  destruction  of  such  resources  or 
by  making  them  impossible  of  develop¬ 
ment  hereafter. 

Any  right  thinking  father  earnestly 
desires  and  strives  to  leave  his  son  both  an 
untarnished  name  and  a  reasonable  equip¬ 
ment  for  the  struggle  of  life.  So  this 
Nation  as  a  whole  should  earnestly  desire 
and  strive  to  leave  to  the  next  generation 
the  national  honor  unstained  and  the 
national  resources  unexhausted.  There 


are  signs  that  both  the  Nation  and  the 


36 

States  are  waking  to  a  realization  of  this 
great  truth.  On  March  io,  1908,  the 
supreme  court  of  Maine  rendered  an 
exceedingly  important  judicial  decision. 
This  opinion  was  rendered  in  response 
to  questions  as  to  the  right  of  the  legislature 

to  restrict  the  cutting  of  trees  on  private 

% 

land  for  the  prevention  of  droughts  and 
floods,  the  preservation  of  the  natural 
water  supply,  and  the  prevention  of  the 
erosion  of  such  lands,  and  the  consequent 
filling  up  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  lakes.  The 


37 

forests  and  water  power  of  Maine  constitute 
the  larger  part  of  her  wealth  and  form  the 
basis  of  her  industrial  life,  and  the  question 
submitted  by  the  Maine  senate  to  the  su¬ 
preme  court  and  the  answer  of  the  supreme 
court  alike  bear  testimony  to  the  wisdom 
of  the  people  of  Maine,  and  clearly  define  a 
policy  of  conservation  of  natural  resources, 
the  adoption  of  which  is  of  vital  importance 
not  merely  to  Maine  but  to  the  whole  country. 

Such  a  policy  will  preserve  soil,  forests, 
water  power  as  a  heritage  for  the  children 


38 

and  the  children’s  children  of  the  men  and 
women  of  this  generation;  for  any  enact¬ 
ment  that  provides  for  the  wise  utilization 
of  the  forests,  whether  in  public  or  private 
ownership,  and  for  the  conservation  of  the 
water  resources  of  the  country,  must  nec¬ 
essarily  be  legislation  that  will  promote 
both  private  and  public  welfare;  for  flood 
prevention,  water  power  development, 
preservation  of  the  soil,  and  improvement 
of  navigable  rivers  are  all  promoted  by 
such  a  policy  of  forest  conservation. 


39 


The  opinion  of  the  Maine  supreme 
bench  sets  forth  unequivocally  the  principle 
that  the  property  rights  of  the  individual 
are  subordinate  to  the  rights  of  the  com¬ 
munity,  and  especially  that  the  waste  of 
wild  timber  land  derived  originally  from 
the  State,  involving  as  it  would  the  im¬ 
poverishment  of  the  State  and  its  peo¬ 
ple  and  thereby  defeating  one  great  pur¬ 
pose  of  government,  may  properly  be  pre¬ 
vented  by  State  restrictions. 

The  court  says  that  there  are  two  rea- 


40 


sons  why  the  right  of  the  public  to  con¬ 
trol  and  limit  the  use  of  private  property 
is  peculiarly  applicable  to  property  in 
land:  “First,  such  property  is  not  the  re¬ 
sult  of  productive  labor,  but  is  derived 
solely  from  the  State  itself,  the  original 
owner;  second,  the  amount  of  land  being 
incapable  of  increase,  if  the  owners  of  large 
tracts  can  waste  them  at  will  without  State 
restriction,  the  State  and  its  people  may  be 
helplessly  impoverished  and  one  great 
purpose  of  government  defeated.  *  *  * 


4i 


We  do  not  think  the  proposed  legis¬ 
lation  would  operate  to  ‘take’  private 
property  within  the  inhibition  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution.  While  it  might  restrict  the 
owner  of  wild  and  uncultivated  lands  in 
his  use  of  them,  might  delay  his  taking 
some  of  the  product,  might  delay  his 
anticipated  profits  and  even  thereby 
might  cause  him  some  loss  of  profit,  it 
would  nevertheless  leave  him  his  lands, 
their  product  and  increase,  untouched, 
and  without  diminution  of  title,  estate, 


42 


or  quantity.  He  would  still  have  large 
measure  of  control  and  large  opportunity 
to  realize  values.  He  might  suffer  delay 
but  not  deprivation.  *  *  *  The  pro¬ 
posed  legislation  *  *  *  would  be 

within  the  legislative  power  and  would  not 
operate  as  a  taking  of  private  property 
for  which  compensation  must  be  made/’ 
The  court  of  errors  and  appeals  of 
New  Jersey  has  adopted  a  similar  view, 
which  has  recently  been  sustained  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  In 


i 


43 


delivering  the  opinion  of  the  Court  on 
April  6,  1908,  Mr.  Justice  Holmes  said: 
“The  State  as  quasi-sovereign  and  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  interests  of  the  public  has 
a  standing  in  court  to  protect  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  the  water,  and  the  forests  within  its 
territory,  irrespective  of  the  assent  or  dis¬ 
sent  of  the  private  owners  of  the  land 
most  immediately  concerned.  *  *  * 

It  appears  to  us  that  few  public  inter¬ 
ests  are  more  obvious,  indisputable  and 
independent  of  particular  theory  than  the 


44 


interest  of  the  public  of  a  State  to  main¬ 
tain  the  rivers  that  are  wholly  within  it 
substantially  undiminished,  except  by  such 
drafts  upon  them  as  the  guardian  of  the 
public  welfare  may  permit  for  the  purpose 
of  turning  them  to  a  more  perfect  use. 
This  public  interest  is  omnipresent  wher¬ 
ever  there  is  a  State,  and  grows  more 
pressing  as  population  grows.  *  *  * 

We  are  of  opinion,  further,  that  the 
constitutional  power  of  the  State  to  insist 
that  its  natural  advantages  shall  remain 


45 

unimpaired  by  its  citizens  is  not  depend¬ 
ent  upon  any  nice  estimate  of  the  extent 
of  present  use  or  speculation  as  to  future 
needs.  The  legal  conception  of  the  neces¬ 
sary  is  apt  to  be  confined  to  somewhat 
rudimentary  wants,  and  there  are  benefits 
from  a  great  river  that  might  escape  a 
lawyer’s  view.  But  the  State  is  not  re¬ 
quired  to  submit  even  to  an  aesthetic 
analysis.  Any  analysis  may  be  inade¬ 
quate.  It  finds  itself  in  possession  of  what 
all  admit  to  be  a  great  public  good,  and 


46 

what  it  has  it  may  keep  and  give  no  one  a 
reason  for  its  will.” 

These  decisions  reach  the  root  of  the 
idea  of  conservation  of  our  resources  in 
the  interests  of  our  people. 

Finally,  let  us  remember  that  the  con¬ 
servation  of  our  natural  resources,  though 
the  gravest  problem  of  to-day,  is  yet  but 
part  of  another  and  greater  problem  to 
which  this  Nation  is  not  yet  awake,  but  to 
which  it  will  awake  in  time,  and  with  which 
it  must  hereafter  grapple  if  it  is  to  live — 


47 

the  problem  of  national  efficiency,  the  pa¬ 


triotic  duty  of  insuring  the  safety  and  con¬ 
tinuance  of  the  Nation.  When  the  people 
of  the  United  States  consciously  undertake 
to  raise  themselves  as  citizens,  and  the 
Nation  and  the  States  in  their  several 
spheres,  to  the  highest  pitch  of  excellence 
in  private,  State,  and  national  life,  and  to 
do  this  because  it  is  the  first  of  all  the 
duties  of  true  patriotism,  then  and  not  till 
then  the  future  of  this  Nation,  in  quality 
and  in  time,  will  be  assured. 


3*30^73 

f 

.9 


HOUSE  OE  REPRESENTATIVES,  UNITED  STATES 
COMMITTEE  ON  AGRICULTURE 


MTGELD  HALL  STACKS 


A  REPORT 

ON 

“THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE 

AND  ON  FLOODS” 


BY 

WILLIS  L.  MOORE,  LL.  D.,  So.  D 

Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 


Note. — When  Professor  Willis  L.  Moore  was  before  the  Committee  on  Agriculture 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1909,  to  explain  the  estimates  for  the 
Weather  Bureau,  a  discussion  arose  as  to  the  influence  of  forests  on  climate 
and  on  the  run-off  of  water.  Professor  Moore  stated  that  he  was  then  mak¬ 
ing  some  studies  on  the  subject  which  might  lead  to  some  definite  conclu¬ 
sions,  and  he  was  requested  by  the  chairman  of  the  committee  to  continue 
these  studies  and  make  a  report  when  they  were  concluded.  This  has  been 
done,  and  the  report  submitted  by  Professor  Moore,  which  follows,  is  printed 
by  direction  of  the  committee. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1910 


OBRARY  OF  THE 
UN  I  VERS  IT  Y 


COLL! 
ENG  IN 

LGEOF 

EER1NG 

G 

From  the.  1  iljranj  of 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 

O  CK  ERSON 

CIAS5  Of  1  5  7  3 
Presented  IK)"4 

bn  fi  is  "Widow  CLAKA 
SHACK EifORD  OCKERSON 


330,  973 

p/9c 

Ho.  9 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON 

FLOODS. 


By  Willis  L.  Moore,  LL.  D.,  Sc.  D.,  Chief  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


INTRODUCTION. 

One  of  the  most  important  problems  before  the  American  people 
to-day  is  the  protection  of  their  natural  resources  against  either  the 
greed  of  those  who  would  monopolize  them  for  their  own  individual 
benefit  or  those  who,  while  well  meaning,  would  through  ignorance 
destroy  our  heritage  and  leave  posterity  poor. 

In  the  discussion  of  matters  concerned  with  the  conservation  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  nation,  some  of  which  may  involve  the 
expenditure  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  and  the  employment 
for  years  to  come  of  thousands  of  public  officials,  a  consideration  of 
the  relation  of  forests  to  climate,  floods,  and  low  water  is  vitallv 
important.  J 

While  much  has  been  written  on  this  subject,  but  little  of  it  has 
emanated  from  meteorologists  or  from  those  in  the  public  service 
who  have  been  actively  engaged  in  the  forecasting  of  river  stages, 
both  of  high  and  of  low  water.  In  the  prosecution  of  such  duty  these 
officials  have  become  acquainted  with  the  physical  facts  involved  in 
the  problem  and  are  therefore  well  fitted  to  speak  on  the  relation  of 
such  facts  to  stream  flow. 

THE  AUTHOR  ACKNOWLEDGES  A  CHANGE  OF  OPINION. 

It  has  frequently  been  stated  that  forests  control  the  flow  of 
streams,  both  in  high-water  stages  and  fin  low-water  stages,  and  that 
the  climate  is  so  materially  affected  by  the  cutting  away  of  the 
forests  that  droughts  have  largely  increased  and  that  the  well-being 
of  future  generations  is  seriously  menaced.  It  is  my  purpose  to 
present  facts  and  figures  that  do  not  support  these  views,  some  of 
which,  especially  those  that  pertain  to  the  flow  of  streams,  were  held 
by  me  up  to  a  few  years  ago— until  a  careful  study  of  our  own  and 
other  records  and  of  the  incidents  of  history  caused  me  to  modify  my 
opinions.  I  shall  endeavor  not  to  be  dogmatic,  but  rather  to  present 
the  reasons  for  the  conclusions  that  I  now  entertain,  with,  so  far  as 
may  be,  statistical  and  historical  evidence  to  sustain  them.  And  1 
reserve  the  right  to  change  or  still  further  modify  my  views  if  the 
presentation  of  new  facts  and  figures  render  such  a  course  logical, 
and  do  not  consider  that  I  shall  stultify  myself  in  so  doing. 


3 


4  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


FORESTS  SHOULD  BE  PROTECTED. 

There  are  so  many  reasons  why  forests  should  be  protected  by  the 
state  and  the  nation  and  economically  conserved  in  the  interests  of 
the  whole  people  that  it  is  doing  an  injury  to  a  good  cause  to  attempt 
to  bring  to  its  support  the  false  reasoning  and  mistaken  conclusions  of 
enthusiasts,  no  matter  how  well  meaning  they  may  be  or  how  devoted 
to  high  and  lofty  purposes. 

Conservation  of  national  resources  is  national  economy,  just  as 
conservation  of  private  resources  is  personal  economy.  But  whether 
personal  economy  is  beneficial  or  harmful  to  the  individual  and  his 
children  depends  upon  the  extent  and  nature  of  that  economy;  and 
the  same  thing  is  equally  true  of  a  nation.  Conservation  that  pre¬ 
vents  the  practical  use  of  individual  or  national  resources  is  like 
unto  the  economy  of  the  timid  servant  that  hid  his  master’s  ^talent 
in  the  earth,  and  in  large  measure  deserves  the  same  condemnation. 

There  should  be  neither  wasteful  use  of  resources  nor  that  greatest 
waste  of  all,  total  disuse  of  them,  but  that  economical  use  which  in 
the  end  will  have  yielded  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number. 

Preservation  of  the  forests,  cutting  wisely,  but  never  more  than 
they  reproduce,  enables  us  to  draw  from  a  perpetual  supply  a  certain 
quantity  of  material  for  buildings,  for  furniture,  and  for  fuel.  But 
of  course  the  forested  land  yields  not  a  handful  of  wheat  nor  of  com 
and  makes  but  a  wretched  substitute  for  the  pasture  upon  which  to  feed 
milch  cows  and  beef  cattle.  These  conflicting  interests,  the  pleading 
of  the  poor  man’s  children  for  bread  and  meat  and  the  cry  of  the 
country  for  the  lumber  that  only  a  woodland  can  furnish  would,  if 
there  were  no  other  interests  to  modify  the  result,  somewhere  find  an 
inevitable  balance.  But  just  as  the  body  is  more  important  than 
its  raiment,  so,  too,  is  its  food  more  important  than  its  shelter;  and 
therefore  in  every  country  the  general  tendency ,  with  growth  of  popu¬ 
lation,  is  to  convert  forest  lands  into  cultivated  fields ,  and  this  tendency 
should  not  be  discouraged  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  deforestation  has 
augmented  droughts  and  foods,  and  I  believe  that  it  can  not  be  so  shown; 
1  believe  that  forests  should  be  preserved  for  themselves  alone,  or  not 
at  all. 

The  average  virgin  forest  is  wasteful  as  a  source  of  lumber  and  of 
fuel.  It  is  only  here  and  there  that  a  tree  is  found  of  proper  growth 
and  suitable  species  for  first-class  material.  As  a  lumber  producer  a 
forest  of  this  kind  is  analogous  to  a  cornfield  planted  in  scattering 
hills  here  and  yonder,  instead  of  being  cultivated  throughout  its 
extent  and  planted  with  that  regularity  and  closeness  of  spacing  that 
will  produce  the  maximum  yield.  If  the  expense  is  not  found  to  be 
too  great  in  comparison  with  the  return,  forests  should  be  cultivated 
with  the  same  care  both  as  to  species  and  as  to  distribution,  and  pos¬ 
sibly,  too,  as  to  rotation,  that  the  intelligent  farmer  uses  in  planting 
his  fields.  In  this  way  returns  equal  to  what  we  now  get  could  be 
secured  from  a  much  smaller  forested  area,  and  there  can  be  no  valid 
objection  to  decreasing  the  area  where  homes  and  a  well-fed  people  take 
the  place  of  wild  animals  and  the  wilderness. 

It  is  found  that  in  some  limited  areas  where  the  forest  is  cleared 
away,  the  soil,  owing  to  its  nature  and  slope,  will  not  admit  of  suc¬ 
cessful  cultivation.  It  may  wash  so  badly  under  heavy  rains  as  to 
become  unfit  even  for  reforesting.  In  others,  owing  to  the  nature 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  5 

of  the  surface,  cultivation  is  impossible.  These  are  fit  places  for 
local  control,  provided  such  control  is  commercially  feasible,  but  not 
for  national  control,  unless  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  the  conditions 
at  these  places  materially  affect  the  navigability  of  streams  or  harmfully 
affect  the  climate  of  the  continent  at  large. 

The  great  value  of  forests  as  fuel  producers  is  admitted  on  every 
hand,  and  because  of  the  growing  cost  of  coal  their  importance  in 
this  particular  is  likely  to  increase  rather  than  diminish,  and  of  course 
without  them  the  woild  would  be  deprived  of  that  beautiful  building 
material  which  from  the  earliest  ages  it  has  used  so  freely  and  regarded 
as  indispensable,  but  which  in  the  future  may  be  used  in  a  less  ratio 
as  the  use  of  noncombustible  materials,  like  concrete,  stone,  and 
steel,  becomes  more  general,  and  certainly  their  use  will  increase.  No 
reason  in  addition  to  these  can  be  needed  to  justify  an  immediate  and 
vigorous  effort  on  the  part  of  individuals,  and  especially  on  the  part 
of  governments,  to  teach  and  to  insure  the  wisest  national  use — that 
is,  wisest  use  when  both  the  present  and  the  future  are  properly  con¬ 
sidered  of  all  existing  forests,  and  also  where  and  how  best  to  secure 
other  forested  areas. 

Nevertheless  additional  reasons  are  urged,  and  in  some  cases  urged 
as  the  paramount  reasons  for  forest  conservation,  which  will  not 
stand  the  test  of  investigation. 

EFFECT  OF  FOREST  ON  CLIMATE. 

It  is  often  said  that  the  climate  of  a  given  place  depends  upon  the 
extent  and  proximity  of  wooded  areas;  that  the  number  of  rainy  days 
and  the  total  amount  of  rainfall  are  modified  by  change  of  forest 
extent;  that  the  depth  of  floods,  the  shallowness  of  low  water,  and 
the  regularity  of  flow  are  all  profoundly  modified  by  changing  the 
proportion  of  fields  to  forests  in  the  watershed. 

Now,  the  extent  and  even  the  nature  of  these  influences  is  not  a 
matter,  as  often  is  implied,  of  universal  agreement.  In  regard  to 
change  of  climate,  regardless  of  the  cause,  trustworthy  records  of 
temperature,  of  rainfall,  and  of  other  meteorological  elements  do  not 
cover .  a  sufficient  range  of  time  to  furnish  all  the  data  necessary  for 
a  statistical  solution  of  this  problem.  However,  there  appears  to  be 
plenty  of  evidence  that  there  have  been  times  in  the  remote  past 
when  the  salt  seas  both  of  Asia  and  of  America  had  surfaces  of  greatly 
increased  size  over  those  that  now  exist.  There  is  evidence  also  that 
m  certain  of  these  regions  trees  once  grew  more  abundantly  than  is 
now  the  case.  This,  however,  must  not  be  taken  as  proof  that  there 
has  been  a  decrease  of  rainfall  due  to  destruction  of  the  forests.  It 
is  true  that  the  forests  have  diminished — in  some  cases  wholly  van¬ 
ished  and  it  is  also  true  that  the  evidence  strongly  supports  the 
assumption  of  a  decrease  in  rainfall,  and  therefore,  of  course,  of  a 
greater  or  less  change  of  climate;  but  this  decrease  of  precipitation 
might  better  be  regarded  as  the  cause  rather  than  as. the  result  of 
the  barren  condition  of  the  soil.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  for¬ 
ests  were  ever  more  extensive  in  Alaska  and  in  other  high-latitude 
countries  than  they  now  are.  Nevertheless,  in  these  countries,  too, 
just  as  m  arid  regions  of  the  great  continents,  there  is  evidence  of 

e  same  slow,  long-period  climatic  change — a  decrease  of  precipi¬ 
tation  or  an  increase  of  temperature,  or  both— a  change  that  can 


6  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

not  be  due  to  deforestation.  This  evidence  consists  in  the  slow  irregu¬ 
lar  retreat  (followed  once  in  a  while  by  a  slight  advance)  and  diminu¬ 
tion  of  the  glaciers,  which  phenomenon  is  said  to  be  universal  regard¬ 
less  of  latitude,  of  longitude,  and  of  elevation,  and  which  appears  to 
have  been  in  more  or  less  steady  progress  with,  however,  occasional 
temporary  relapses  of  one  or  another  magnitude  since  the  culmina¬ 
tion  of  the  great  ice  age.  In  fact,  we  can  reasonably  say  that  we 
are  even  yet  in  the  ice  age — a  vanishing  age  to  be  sure,  but  one  not 
wholly  gone — and ,  further ,  that  whatever  marked  climatic  changes  take 
flace  they  are  essentially  universal  and  not  local. 

Prof.  William  J.  Humphreys,  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  professor  of 
meteorological  physics,  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  says: 

These  universal  slow  climatic  changes  that  for  thousands  of  years  have  been  modi¬ 
fying  the  glaciers  and  changing  the  inland  seas  might  very  well  have  led  to  extensive 
forest  destruction;  but  that  it  itself  was  the  effect  and  the  destruction  of  the  trees 
the  cause  seems  most  unlikely. 

DESICCATION  IN  ASIA. 

In  this  connection  I  would  refer  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Ellsworth 
Huntington,  B.  A.  of  Beloit  and  M.  A.  of  Harvard.  For  four  years, 
1897-1901,  he  was  the  President’s  assistant  and  instructor  at  Euphra¬ 
tes  College,  Harput,  Turkey.  He  explored  the  canyon  of  the  Euphra¬ 
tes  River  in  1901  and  was  awarded  the  Gill  Memorial  by  the  Royal 
Geographic  Society  of  London.  He  was  research  assistant  in  the 
Carnegie  Institution,  of  Washington,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Pum- 
pelly  expedition  to  Russian  Turkestan  in  1903-4.  He  spent  one  and 
one-half  years  in  Turkestan  and  Persia  and  a  like  period  in  India, 
China,  and  Siberia  as  a  member  of  the  Barrett  expedition.  He  has 
been  instructor  in  geography  at  Yale  since  1907.  He  explored  the 
Lop  basin  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  whose  length  is  1,400  miles  and  whose 
maximum  width  from  north  to  south  is  400  miles,  embracing  an  area 
as  large  as  that  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of  Lake  Michigan 
and  north  of  Tennessee.  Most  of  the  basin  is  desert.  In  an  article 
in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  November,  1908,  dated  at  Yale 
University,  November  10  of  the  same  year,  he  says: 

The  Lop  basin  contains  abundant  evidences  of  climatic  changes,  and  has  been  dis¬ 
cussed  in  detail  by  the  writer  in  “The  Pulse  of  Asia.”  Throughout  the  basin  the 
amount  of  vegetation  has  greatly  decreased  in  recent  times  without  the  intervention 
of  man.  On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Kuenlun  Mountains  the  dissected  condition  of 
numerous  deposits  of  loess  shows  that  a  cover  of  grass  prevailed  at  no  remote  date,  but 
has  now  disappeared.  In  the  zone  of  vegetation  plants  of  all  kinds  show  signs  of  a 
process  of  drying  up  which  has  been  in  progress  for  centuries.  Tamarisk  bushes  stand 
upon  mounds  from  5  to  60  feet  high,  a  sure  sign  of  the  lowering  of  the  level  of  ground 
water;  poplar  forests  which  once  extended  for  scores  of  miles  now  form  wastes  of 
branchless  dead  trunks  like  gaunt  gray  skeletons;  and  beds  of  dead  reeds  cover  hun¬ 
dreds  of  square  miles.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  destruction  of  forests  has 
been  the  cause  of  the  diminution  of  rainfall.  In  the  Lop  basin  the  opposite  appears 
to  be  the  case;  the  supply  of  water  has  diminished,  and  therefore  the  forests  have  died. 
Rainfall  unquestionably  controls  forestation,  but  neither  in  the  Lop  basin  nor  in  other 
parts  of  central  and  western  Asia  is  there  any  good  evidence  that  forests  have  an 
appreciable  effect  upon  rainfall. 

Another  important  line  of  evidence  is  found  in  the  relation  of  rivers  to  the  desert 
of  Taklamakan  and  to  ruins  of  ancient  dwellings.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Lop  basin, 
from  Khotan  eastward  to  Lop  N  or,  the  writer  examined  seventeen  streams  which  are 
worthy  of  notice,  because  of  their  size  or  because  they  support  oases.  All  but  four 
come  to  an  end  in  the  zone'  of  vegetation,  where  they  spread  out  and  disappear  either 
naturally  or  because  used  for  irrigation.  Hence  it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  7 


or  not  they  have  decreased  in  length.  At  the  lower  ends  of  the  other  four,  old  channels 
are  found  lined  with  dead  forests,  which  prove  that  the  streams  once  extended  from 
8  to  "25  miles  farther  than  is  now  the  case  before  finally  becoming  swallowed  up  in 
the  sand . 

FORESTS  IN  EVIDENCE  AFTER  STREAMS  HAVE  DRIED  UP. 

The  fact  that  dead  forests  stand  long  after  the  streams  have  receded 
seems  to  'prove  that  they  are  the  last  to  disappear  rather  than  the  first , 
and  therefore  that  their  removal  did  not  precede  the  drought  but  rather 
that  the  forests  ceased  to  exist  when  the  rainfall  became  deficient. 
Unmistakable  evidence  is  found  of  the  existence  of  extensive  forests 
in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  where  only  the  petrified  trunks  of  trees 
now  remain.  It  can  not  be  said  that  man  removed  these  forests  and 
brought  on  the  drought. 

% 

LOCAL  CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES  OF  FORESTS. 

One  may  conclude  from  the  evidence  gathered  from  many  sources 
that  summer  temperature  is  slightly  less  in  the  forests  and  in  their 
neighborhood,  especially  to  the  leeward,  than  it  is  in  corresponding 
cleared  sections.  Forest  temperature  is  also  slightly  higher  during 
cold  weather  than  is  that  of  open  fields,  due  presumably  to  the  inter¬ 
ference  of  the  trees,  even  when  of  the  deciduous  type,  with  free  ground 
radiation. 

The  increase  of  winter  temperature,  however,  is  not  equal  to  the 
decrease  of  that  of  summer,  the  season  during  which  most  vegetation 
needs  all  of  the  heat  it  can  get;  and,  therefore,  it  happens  that  wooded 
areas  may  slightly  retard  the  growth  of  crops  in  their  neighborhood, 
as  is  said  to  be  the  case  in  the  uplands  of  Mauritius. 

With  regard  to  the  effects  of  forests  on  rainfall,  I  quote  the  follow¬ 
ing  from  recent  writings  of  Prof.  Cleveland  Abbe,  who  is  the  senior 
professor  of  the  Weather  Bureau  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Science.  He  says: 

It  is  a  pity  that  the  errors  of  past  centuries  should  still  continue  to  be  disseminated 
long  after  scientific  research  has  overthrown  them.  It  is  easy  to  start  false  theories  and 
to  believe  them,  because  they  are  generally  simple  and  plausible,  but  long  years  of 
work  are  necessary  before  we  get  at  the  secrets  of  nature.  In  this  day  and  generation, 
the  idea  that  forests  either  increase  or  diminish  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  from  the 
clouds  is  not  worthy  to  be  entertained  by  rational,  intelligent  men. 

Gauges  exposed  over  forests  universally  catch  more  than  gauges 
exposed  at  the  same  elevation  in  the  open.  Professor  Abbe  explains 
this  as  follows : 

•  m.a*n  trouble  consists  in  the  assumption  that  the  water  caught  and  measured 
m  the  ram  gauge  correctly  represents  the  rainfall .  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  obser¬ 
vations  bearing  directly  on  this  question  are  those  made  by  Brandis  and  Blanford  in 
India,  where  rain  gauges  were  placed  both  on  the  ground  and  above  the  tree  tops  at 
the  height  of  60  feet  in  well-watered  regions.  The  high  gauges  in  the  forest  recorded 
4  per  cent  greater  catch  than  those  at  the  same  height  in  the  open  fields,  and  the  low 
gauges  on  the  ground  in  cleared  spaces  in  the  forest  gave  2  per  cent  greater  catch  than 
those  m  open  lands.  But  these  figures  do  not  prove  that  the  forest  received  more 
ram  than  the  clear  areas,  although  at  first  sight  they  would  seem  to  confirm  that  idea, 
lhe  tact  is  that  the  forest  gauges  were  better  sheltered  from  the  wind  than  the  open- 
ground  gauges  and  this  caused  them  to  catch  a  larger  proportion  of  the  rain  that  fell 

I  he  rain  gauge  has  several  sources  of  error  that  must  be  investigated  and  allowed  for 
as  in  all  other  meteorological  apparatus,  so  that  we  may  not  use  crude  and  imperfect 
aata. .  1  he  effect  of  the  wind  in  diminishing  the  catch  of  the  rain  gauge  has  freq  uently 
been  investigated  since  the  first  studies  by  Mikle  in  1819,  and  the  present  state  of  our 


8  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


knowledge  was  convincingly  summarized  *  *  *  in  1887  in  an  Appendix  to  Bulletin 
7,  published  by  the  Forestry  Division,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
This  Bulletin,  edited  by  B.  E.  Fernow,  “the  father  of  American  forestry,”  recounts 
the  various  methods  appropriate  to  the  determination  of  the  true  amount  of  precipi¬ 
tation,  and  its  bearing  on  theories  of  forest  influences. 

It  appears  that  in  ordinary  rainfalls  we  have  a  mixture  of  large  and  small  drops  of 
water  descending  with  various  velocities  that  depend  on  their  size,  density,  and  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  Particles  of  hail  descend  even  faster  than  drops  of  water,  but 
flakes  of  snow  fall  more  slowly.  When  the  wind  strikes  the  side  of  a  rain  gauge  the 
deflected  currents  move  past  this  obstacle  more  rapidly,  and  there  is  an  invisible  layer 
of  wind  above  the  open  mouth  of  the  gauge,  whose  horizontal  motion  is  more  rapid  than 
that  of  the  wind  higher  up.  Some  of  the  larger  falling  drops  may  descend  with  a 
rapidity  sufficient  to  penetrate  this  swiftly  moving  layer  of  air,  but  the  slower  ones 
will  be  carried  over  to  leeward  and  many  will  miss  the  gauge.  The  resulting  loss  of 
rain  will  depend  upon  both  the  horizontal  velocity  of  the  wind  and  the  vertical 
velocity  of  descent  of  the  rain. 

The  fact  that  the  deficit  increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  wind  (which  is  less  over 
the  forest)  has  also  been  proven  in  a  different  way,  viz,  by  shielding  the  gauge  from 
the  wind,  when  the  deficit  becomes  greatly  reduced  in  value.  Professors  Henry, 
Nipher,  Boernstein,  Hellmann,  all  of  them  eminent  investigators,  agree  in  this  con¬ 
clusion. 

Of  two  gauges  exposed  at  the  same  elevation  above  the  ground, 
one  over  the  open  fields  and  the  other  over  a  forest,  just  above  the 
tops  of  the  trees,  the  one  over  the  forest  will  catch  considerably  more 
rain,  because  the  friction  of  the  trees  reduces  the  velocity  of  the  wind 
and  it  does  not  rush  across  the  open  end  of  the  gauge  with  the  same 
speed  that  it  does  across  the  gauge  over  the  open  fields. 

The  influence  of  a  forest  upon  the  rainfall  is  therefore  only  ap¬ 
parent;  it  may  increase  or  diminish  the  catch  of  the  gauge,  but  not  the 
quantity  of  rain  falling  from  the  cloud. 

Professor  Abbe  further  says: 

Tf  gauges  are  raised  up  year  by  year,  the  deficit  increases;  if  gauges  in  open  fields 
become  surrounded  by  growing  trees  or  higher  buildings,  the  deficit  decreases.  The 
climate  has  not  changed,  but  the  errors  of  the  record  have  done  so.  Those  who  wish 
to  restore  the  good  old  times  before  the  forests  were  cut  down,  when  rain  and  snow 
came  plentifully  and  regularly,  have  only  to  lower  and  shelter  their  rain  gauges  and 
snow  gauges  and,  presto ,  the  climate  has  changed  to  correspond. 

When  rain  is  falling  on  a  forested  region,  about  25  per  cent  is  temporarily  held  far 
above  the  ground  on  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  trees.  In  this  minutely  divided 
condition,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind,  the  drops  evaporate  freely,  so  that  the 
forest  atmosphere  becomes  saturated  and  decidedly  less  moisture  reaches  the  ground 
to  be  absorbed  in  the  forest  humus  than  on  an  equal  volume  of  soil  outside  the  forest. 
A  special  climate  is  therefore  maintained  within  a  forested  area.  The  temperature 
is  lowered  and  the  relative  humidity  is  increased,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  this 
local  forest  climate  extends  outside  the  forest  or  affects  exterior  conditions  to  any 
important  extent.  Of  course,  the  climate  under  a  tree  or  a  tent  or  within  a  house 
differs  from  that  outside,  but  these  are  local  matters,  quite  foreign  to  the  broad  ques¬ 
tion,  Do  forests  affect  climate? 

The  climate  within  a  house  is  not  the  climate  of  the  whole  city,  nor  is  the  climate 
of  a  ravine  that  of  the  surrounding  fields.  One  thermometer  or  rain  gauge  in  the 
open  air  does  not  give  the  climate  of  a  State  or  watershed.  The  various  and  restricted 
uses  of  the  word  “climate”  have  led  to  our  confusion. 

LOCAL  TEMPERATURE  DIFFERENCES  DUE  TO  CHARACTER  OF  SOIL 

COVERING. 

As  the  result  of  investigations  begun  in  Wisconsin  by  the  author 
over  fifteen  years  ago  and  continued  during  the  past  three  or  four 
years  by  Prof.  Henry  J.  Cox,  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  we  have  found 
that  surprising  results  are  obtained  on  two  surfaces  of  precisely  the 
same  level  on  adjacent  fields,  one  of  them  covered  with  thick  vege¬ 
tation  and  the  other  covered  2  inches  deep  with  sand.  We  have 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  9 

noted  differences  in  temperature  frequently  of  7°  to  9°  in  the  air 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  surface  or  within  a  stratum  3  inches 
deep,  this  difference  being  so  great  that  one  area  would  receive  a  heavy 
deposit  of  frost  and  the  other  (sanded  section)  be  entirely  free  from 
such  frigid  temperatures;  and  the  difference  in  temperature  between 
a  thermometer  exposed,  in  the  heart  of  a  city  and  one  in  the  open 
field  but  a  few  miles  away  was  found  to  be  marked.  As  an  illustra¬ 
tion:  A  thermometer  in  a  shelter  at  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  registered  50° 
minimum  temperature  on  a  certain  morning,  while  a  thermometer 
m  the  cranberry  marshes  50  miles  away  fell  to  freezing;  but  these 
were  all  local  irregularities.  The  difference  in  temperature  between 
the  air  over  thick  vegetation  and  that  over  the  sanded  surface  dis¬ 
appeared  within  a  height  of  3  feet,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  tem¬ 
perature  over  La  Crosse  and  over  the  cranberry  marshes  was  the 
same  at  an  altitude  of  200  feet. 

CHANGING  THE  LOCAL  CLIMATE  BY  ARTIFICIAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  covering  of  tobacco  plants  with  thin  cheese  cloth  results  in 
establishing  a  local  climate  which  will  continue  so  long  as  the  cheese 
cloth  remains  in  position.  The  extremes  of  temperature,  both  heat 
and  cold,  are  reduced,  and  the  resulting  climatic  change  produces  a 
marked  effect  upon  all  vegetation  grown  under  the  artificial  condi¬ 
gn18,  The  erection  of  a  tent,  of  a  barn,  of  a  dwelling  house,  of  a 
village,  or  the  growth  of  a  great  city,  respectively,  influence  the  local 
climate  m  proportion  to  the  area  that  is  covered,  modified  by  the 
character  or  the  material  used  in  these  constructions.  Likewise  the 
vegetable  covering  of  the  earth  may  have  a  local  appreciable  effect. 
The  flooding  of  an  area,  the  cutting  away  of  forests,  erosion,  and 
sanding  may  have  either  minute  or  appreciable  effects  upon  local 
climates  m  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  areas  affected,  but 
mis  does  not  mean  that,  there  is  any  great  difference  in  the  climatic  effect 
between  a  forest  covering  and  one  of  bushes ,  of  grass ,  or  of  growing 
crops;  and.it  does  not  signify  that  there  is  sufficient  change  in  the  ther- 
rml  conditions ,  due  to  the  activities  of  man,  as  to  make  an  appreciable 
difference  in  the  temperature  at  an  altitude  of  one  or  two  hundred  feet, 
or  to  affect  the  general  climatic  conditions , or  to  cause  storms  to  be  more 
frequent  than  formerly  or  of  greater  severity ,  or  to  increase  the  amount 
of  precipitation. 


A  PLEA  FOR  TOLERANCE  OF  OPINION. 

But  this  discussion  should  not  be  approached  in  an  intolerant 
spirit.  .  We  have  accurate  records  of  climate  from  only  a  few  isolated 
places  in  this  country  that  extend  back  for  a  period  of  as  much  as 
one  hundred  years,  and  the  Government’s  extensive  records  only 
cover  a  period  of  forty  years.  I  would  warn  against  hasty  conclu¬ 
sions;  against  accepting  as  final  the  deductions  of  several  investi¬ 
gators  who  have  recently  publicly  discussed  the  flood  records  of  the 
Weather  Bureau.  They  find  a  most  alarming  increase  in  the  floods 
ot  the  Ohio  Valley  and  other  places,  for  which  I  find  no  justification. 
Let  logic,  reason,  and  investigation  have  time  to  operate,  for  any 
man  may  be.  honestly  mistaken  and  draw  general  conclusions  from 
f^nSe<^Uential  details  or  deceive  himself  by  the  improper  grouping 


10  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 
RECORDS  OF  PRECIPITATION  SHOW  NO  MATERIAL  CHANGE. 


The  records  of  precipitation  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
do  not  show  that  there  has  been  any  appreciable  permanent  decrease 
in  the  rainfall  of  any  section  of  the  United  States.  There  are  un¬ 
doubtedly  periods  covering  a  number  of  years  of  continued  deficiency 
in  precipitation  for  certain  districts,  but  at  the  same  time  other  dis¬ 
tricts  may  show  a  corresponding  increase.  One  of  the  best  and  long¬ 
est  records  of  precipitation  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  is  that 
made  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  by  Mr.  Samuel  Rodman  and  his  son, 
covering  the  period  from  1814  to  within  a  year  or  so  ago,  a  period 
of  about  ninety -five  years.  The  following  table  shows  the  annual 
amount  of  precipitation  during  each  year  of  the  above-named  period, 
from  which  one  can  see  for  himself  the  variations  in  the  amounts 
from  year  to  year,  by  the  ten-year  period,  or  make  other  comparison: 

Table  1. — Annual  precipitation  at  New  Bedford ,  Mass.,  for  the  period,  1814  to  1908. 


Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

1814 

43.08 

1833 

42.62 

1852 

46.14 

1871 

49. 60 

1890 

61.69 

1815 

40. 78 

1834 

45. 12 

1853 

39.  47 

1872 

47.66 

1891 

47.83 

1816 

44.13 

1835 

47.21 

1854 

53. 82 

1873 

51.70 

1892 

42.83 

1817 

43.33 

1836 

42.83 

1855 

41.00 

1874 

49.34 

1893 

50.27 

1818 

40.  77 

1837 

39. 07 

1856 

37.09 

1875 

48.33 

1894 

45.89 

1819 

39. 66 

1838 

38. 28 

1857 

43.30 

1876 

42. 18 

1895 

41.63 

1820 

41.32 

1839 

44.  38 

1858 

44.  03 

1877 

47.04 

1896 

47.73 

1821 

45.  64 

1840 

45.59 

1859 

51.43 

1878 

50.56 

1897 

50.96 

1822 

41.78 

1841 

50.  60 

1860 

39.  73 

1879 

42.31 

1898 

62.60 

1823 

59. 89 

1842 

39.06 

1861 

46.  46 

1880 

40.07 

1899 

44.  34 

1824 

47.34 

1843 

50. 67 

1862 

43.  32 

1881 

39. 10 

1900 

44.99 

1825 

38.  09 

1844 

40.  73 

1863 

45. 10 

1882 

41.38 

1901 

51.84 

1826 

54.77 

1845 

48.06 

1864 

40.96 

1883 

43.51 

1902 

45.42 

1827 

62.90 

1846 

34.51 

1865 

46.01 

1884 

54.99 

1903 

47.  49 

1828 

'  39.04 

1847 

45.  91 

1866 

40.  30 

1885 

36.81 

1904 

50.08 

1829 

65.  41 

1848 

40.74 

1867 

47.11 

1886 

49.85 

1905 

41.30 

1830 

64.66 

1849 

36.42 

1868 

56.32 

1887 

51.77 

O1906 

43.09 

1831 

61. 18 

1850 

62.67 

1869 

49. 94 

1888 

55. 07 

1907 

42.32 

1832 

49.  31 

1851 

51.61 

1870 

47.16 

1889 

52.  71 

1908 

38. 61 

a  The  record  ior  New  Bedford  ends  with  the  year  1906;  annual  amounts  for  1907  and  1908  are  for  Fall  River. 
Mass. 


The  average  fall  for  ten-year  periods  from  1814  to  1908,  inclusive, 
indicates  that  while  the  rainfall  during  the  past  few  years  has  been 
considerably  less  than  the  average,  it  has  not  been  less  than  has 
occurred  in  numerous  previous  years — notably  from  1814  to  1819, 
from  1833  to  1839,  and  from  1860  to  1866.  Further  investigation 
shows  that  for  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  period  the  average  annual 
rainfall  at  that  point  was  about  46  inches,  while  during  the  last 
forty -five  years  the  annual  fall  has  increased  to  more  than  47  inches. 
This  indicates  that  instead  of  a  diminishing  rainfall  we  have,  the  evidence 
that,  if  there  is  any  variation  at  all  in  the  precipitation,  it  is  a  slight 
increase  for  this  region. 

Figure  1  graphically  shows  the  average  fall  for  ten-year  periods, 
namely,  from  1814  to  1908,  inclusive. 

We  will  now  move  our  inquiry  to  a  part  of  the  Middle  West  where 
there  has  been  no  deforestation.  Here  there  has  been  a  growth  of 
planted  hedge  rows,  of  trees  along  highways  and  fence  lines  and 
about  places  of  habitation,  and  the  virgin  soil  has  been  broken  and 
made  more  permeable  to  the  rainfall. 


Fig.  1.  Average  rainfall  in  ten-year  periods. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  H 


New  Bedford,  Mass. 


12  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  ' 

In  Kansas  during  the  last  fifty  years  records  of  rainfall  have  been 
made  only  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  In  the  western  part  of 
the  State  a  single  record  has  been  made,  viz,  at  Dodge  City,  extending 
back  to  1875.  Likewise  in  Nebraska,  the  record  for  North  Platte  is  the 
only  one  that  extends  back  to  the  early  seventies.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  at  Dodge,  Kans.,  for  the  entire  period  of  observation  is  20.8 
inches,  and  at  North  Platte,  Nebr.,  18.7  inches. 

Considering  the  record  for  the  last  thirty  years  only,  since  it  is 
convenient  to  subdivide  that  number  into  periods  of  equal  length, 
the  mean  becomes  for  Dodge,  21.3  inches,  and  for  North  Platte,  19 
inches.  I  have  also  had  computed  the  average  rainfall  for  three 
additional  stations  in  Kansas,  three  in  Nebraska,  and  one  each  in 
Iowa  and  Missouri  for  the  last  thirty  years,  to  see  whether  the  con¬ 
clusions  reached  from  a  consideration  of  the  Dodge  and  North  Platte 
data  are  of  local  or  general  application.  The  averages  in  periods  of 
ten  years  each  appear  in  the  following  table,  from  which  it  may  be 
dearly  seen  that  the  first  and  the  last  ten  years  were  periods  of 
fairly  abundant  rainfall  and  that  the  middle  ten  years  was  a  period 
of  deficient  rainfall.  It  will  be  further  seen,  and  this  is  the  impor¬ 
tant  point  in  the  discussion,  that  there  is  practically  no  difference 
between  the  rainfall  of  the  first  ten  years  and  the  last  ten  years. 
Three  of  the  ten  stations  show  that  the  last  ten-year  period  had  a 
slightly  greater  rainfall  than  the  first,  but  the  difference  is  so  small 
that  it  is  really  immaterial.  The  remaining  stations  show  a  slightly 
less  rainfall  in  the  last  ten  years  than  in  the  first.  This  table  shows, 
therefore,  that  the  rainfall  has  neither  increased  nor  diminished  by 
amounts  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  heavy  rains  of  1906,  and  also  the  year  previous,  were  common 
to  all  that  vast  stretch  of  territory  west  of  the  ninety-fifth  meridian. 
It  was  not  a  local  phenomenon  centered  in  western  Kansas  and 
western  Nebraska,  since  equally  heavy  rains  fell  in  Colorado,  Utah, 
western  Texas,  Oklahoma,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  cen¬ 
tral  and  southern  California.  The  explanation  of  the  heavy  rains  can 
not  be  attributed  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture,  since,  as 
has  just  been  stated,  the  heavy  rains  were  common  to  the  arid  and 
mountain  regions  of  the  Southwest  where  very  little  agriculture  is 
practiced. 

Mean  rainfall  at  the  stations  named. 


Stations  and  periods  of  observation. 

For  the 
full 

period  of 
observa¬ 
tion. 

For  the  thirty  years,  1877-1906,  in  periods 
of  ten  years. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Mean. 

Dodap  Nans..  1875-1  Q06  . 

Inches. 

20.8 

Inches. 

22.8 

Inches. 

18.4 

Inches. 

22.7 

Inches. 

21.3 

North  Platte,  Nphr.,  1 875-1 906  . 

18.7 

20.1 

17.2 

19.8 

19.0 

Tndpppndp.nnp,  Nans.,  1872-1906 . 

37.1 

39.1 

35.5 

38.1 

37.6 

Opnoa.  Np.br.  1 875-1  906  . 

28.2 

26.3 

26.4 

31.3 

28.0 

Manhattan  Nans..  1858— 1906 . 

30.6 

33.4 

29.2 

31.9 

31.5 

I.a.wronnp  Nans..  1868-1906 . 

36.4 

35.1 

39.2 

36.7 

37.0 

Omaha.  Np.hr..  1871— IQOfi . 

30.7 

37.6 

25.6 

27.9 

30.4 

Minden  Nebr.,  1878-1906 . 

31.5 

36.1 

29.2 

29.8 

31.7 

Oreann  Mo..  1 866-1 906  . 

35.6 

37.1 

32.3 

39.5 

36.3 

Npolnilr,  Towa,  1 872-1 Q06 . 

35.0 

35.4 

31.4 

35.1 

34.3 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  13 


Fig.  2.  Progressive  Averages  of  Precipitation,  1834-1896. 


14  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


The  annual  fluctuation  in  precipitation  for  two  different  parts  of 
the  United  States,  viz,  New  England  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  is  graphic¬ 
ally  shown  in  figure  2.  The  New  England  curve  was  constructed  from 
the  data  for  Boston,  New  Bedford,  and  Providence,  at  which  points 
fairly  accurate  rainfall  measurements  have  been  made  dating  back  to 
1836.  The  Ohio  Valley  curve  is  based  upon  rainfall  measurements 
made  at  Marietta,  Portsmouth,  and  Cincinnati. 

The  heavy  horizontal  lines  in  the  diagram  represent  the  normal 
precipitation.  The  amount  that  the  actual  fall  of  any  year  exceeded 
or  fell  short  of  the  normal  may  be  found  by  noting  the  intersections 
of  the  curved  lines  with  the  smaller  horizontal  lines,  whose  values  are 
given  in  inches  on  the  left  margin.  If  periods  of  heavy  and  light  rain¬ 
fall  alternated  regularly,  the  lines  of  departure  from  the  normal 
(the  curved  line)  would  rise  and  fall  in  a  series  of  bends  or  inflec¬ 
tions  precisely  as  the  temperature  rises  and  falls  with  the  alternation 
of  day  and  night.  Reference  to  the  diagram  itself  will  best  show  how 
closely  the  rainfall  of  the  two  regions  approaches  any  sort  of  periodic¬ 
ity.  *The  Ohio  Valley  curve  is  more  symmetrical  than  that  of  New 
England,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  rough  periodicity  of  about  nine 
years  in  it.  Thus  there  were  periods  or  heavy  rainfall  about  1837, 
1847,  1858,  1866,  1875,  1882,  and  1890,  and  of  drought  in  1839,  1856, 
1863,  1871,  1878,  1886,  and  1895. 

A  comparison  of  the  two  curves  illustrates  the  fact  elsewhere 
referred  to  that  the  rainfall  over  a  region  so  large  as  the  United 
States  is  not  by  any  means  uniform  in  its  distribution.  Thus  the 
period  of  relatively  light  rainfall  in  New  England  during  1880-1883 
was  one  of  heavy  rainfall  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  elsewhere  in  the 
great  interior  valleys.  Likewise  in  1878  there  was  heavy  rainfall  in 
New  England  and  light  rainfall  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

In  New  England,  where  deforestation  began  early  in  our  history  and 
has  been  extensive,  the  mean  of  the  fluctuations  in  the  rain  curve  is  a 
steady  rise  since  1836  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  and  in  the  Ohio  Valley , 
where  the  forest  area  has  been  greatly  diminished,  there  is  no  decrease 
of  rainfall  shown  by  the  average  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  curve.  These 
facts  are  important  and  can  not  be  successfully  disputed. 

GOVERNMENT  RECORDS  VERSUS  RECOLLECTIONS  OF  OLDEST  INHABI¬ 
TANTS. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  to  publish 
information  with  regard  to  climatic  conditions;  and  in  this  connec¬ 
tion  I  would  call  particular  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  government 
records  are  in  a  class  separate  and  distinct  from  the  recollections  of 
the  oldest  inhabitants,  which  are  entirely  untrustworthy,  no  matter 
how  truthful  the  persons  intend  to  be.  These  recollections  do  not 
justify  the  claim  that  the  forests  have  increased  precipitation,  for  it  is 
almost  the  universal  opinion  of  the  maturer  man  that  the  climate  is 
milder  and  that  the  snows  are  less  deep  than  when  he  was  a  boy.  He 
remembers  the  long  tramp  to  the  little  red  schoolhouse  in  snow  knee 
deep,  but  he  fails  to  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  a  snow  knee 
deep  to  a  boy  of  nine  years  of  age  is  no  inconvenience  to  a  man  of  six 
feet  two.  Human  recollection  can  only  recall  from  the  dim  past 
unusual  storms — conditions  that  were  abnormal,  and  these  abnor- 
malties  are  what  the  man  of  fifty  or  sixty  years  to-day  believes  to 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  15 

have  been  the  average  when  he  was  young.  In  other  words  the 
individual  recollection  should  be  given  little  weight  in  determining 
a  matter  that  requires  careful  calculation  and  the  preservation  of 
accurate  daily  records  before  anything  like  safe  conclusions  can  be 
reached. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  FORESTS  ON  FLOODS. 

I  have  always  held  to  the  opinion  that  the  cutting  away  of  forests 
has  had  little  or  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  amount  of  precipitation 
or  on  the  general  temperature.  But  until  recent  years  I  did  believe 
that  deforestation  had  an  important  and  beneficial  effect  on  the  con¬ 
servation;  that  is,  on  the  economical  use  of  the  rainfall,  and  that 
forests  restricted  the  run-off.  But  study  and  investigation  have 
caused  me  to  modify  my  views. 

Professor  Abbe  says : 

j  cultivated  soil  outside  the  forest,  when,  plowed  and  broken  open  down  to  a 
depth  of  8  inches,  acts  as  a  sponge  to  retain  water  quite  as  well  as  does  the  ordinary 
humus  of  a  forest,  especially  when  we  consider  that  under  a  forest  less  rain  actually 
enters  the  humus.  In  fact  such  measurements  as  have  been  made  show  that  the 
amount  of  water  that  is  eventually  given  up  from  the  forest  humus  varies  but  little 
from  that  given  up  in  the  course  of  time  by  the  unforested,  cultivated  soil.  The  total 
run-off  from  the  two  regions  does  not  eventually  differ  greatly,  but  it  does  differ  in  the 
speed.  However,  it  may  be  neither  the  amount  nor  the  speed  of  run-off  from  the  soil 
that  determines  the  occurrence  of  river  floods.  We  must  distinguish  between  the 
soil  run-ott  and  the  river  run-off.  When  water  has  once  entered  the  river  channel  its 
movements  are  determined  wholly  by  the  force  of  gravity,  the  curvature,  the  section, 
and  the  slope  of  the  channel.  Floods  may  occur  in  every  small  tributary  and  yet 
these  waters  may  so  enter  the  main  channel  as  to  produce  only  a  gentle  rise  through¬ 
out  its  whole  length.  At  other  times  the  smaller  elementary  floods  may  conspire  and 
produce  a  specially  disastrous  flood  in  the  main  channel.  Therefore  the  occurrence 
of  disastrous  floods  does  not  depend  on  rainfall  alone  or  wholly  on  soil  run-off  but 
equally  and  principally  on  the  relative  times  at  which  floods  occur  in  the  individual 
tributaries,  and  the  time  required  by  them  all  to  reach  and  combine  at  any  given 
point  in  the  mam  channel.  6 

This  is  a  tangled  problem,  since  the  result  must  depend  upon  the 
slope  of  the  ground;  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil;  the  nature 
ol  the  forest,  whether  deciduous  or  evergreen;  the  nature  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  climate  of  the  place,  whether  it  has  cold,  snowy  winters  or  rainy 
ones,  and  whether  the  spring  merges  gradually  or  abruptly  into  sum¬ 
mer;  upon  the  use  or  treatment  of  the  cleared  surface;  and  probablv 
upon  other  conditions. 

The  foresters  are  generally  in  accord  in  the  belief  that  the  forests 
exercise  a  marked  restraining  influence  on  floods  and  a  -conserving 
influence  on  precipitation,  even  if  they  do  not  actually  increase,  by  an 
appreciable  amount,  the  rainfall.  On  the  other  side,  army  and  civilian 
engineers  and  meteorologists .  generally  believe  that  the  broken, 
cultivated,  permeable  soil,  which  is  covered  for  a  greater  portion  of 
each  year  with  millions  of  the  rootlets  of  growing  grasses  and  cereals, 
is  equally  as  good  a  conserver  of  the  rainfall  as  the  forest  area  itself, 
even  though  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  the  deep  boring  of  large 

* i  um ,  that  the  evergreen  forests  prevent  the 

drifting  of  the  snow  and  at  the  same  time  their  heavy  foliage  protects 
the  snow  from  the  sun  and  permits  a  slow  melting,  which  is  all 
absorbed  by  the  forest  cover  until  it  is  saturated,  and  then  with  further 
heat  the  water  breaks  out  in  a  flood;  that  the  function  of  deciduous 
forest  trees  is  to  catch  the  falling  snow,  distribute  it  equally  over  the 
surface,  and  thus  facilitate  more  rapid  melting  by  causing  the  snow 
to  present  to  the  warm  air  a  greater  melting  surface  than  it  does  in  the 


16  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

open,  where  wind  drifts  it  into  banks  in  the  lee  of  opposing  objects 
and  stores  it  in  depressions  and  ravines,  so  that  it  may  remain  for  a 
considerable  time  after  the  evenly  distributed  blanket  has  disap¬ 
peared  from  the  forests. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Chittenden  that  in  Yellowstone  Park  and 
similar  mountain  regions  the  forests  protect  the  snow  from  drifting, 
melting,  and  evaporating,  while  in  the  open  there  is  much  drifting 
and  an  early  clearing  up  of  those  places  well  exposed  to  wind  and  to 
sunshine;  therefore,  when  warm  weather  and  its  rain  come  on 
abruptly,  and  come  to  stay  for  the  summer,  as  they  do  in  those 
regions,  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  forests,  because  of  the  greater 
area  exposed,  the  surface  being  uniformly  covered,  is  far  more  rapid 
than  it  is  in  the  open  where  it  is  badly  drifted,  and  leads  to  higher 
freshets  and  less  enduring  run-offs.  On  the  whole,  it  is  probable  that 
forests  have  little  to  do  with  the  height  of  floods  in  main  tributaries  and 
principal  streams ,  since  they  occur  only  as  the  result  of  extensive  and 
heavy  rains,  after  the  ground  is  everywhere  saturated,  or  when  heavy 
warm  rains  come  on  the  top  of  deep  snows. 

RUN-OFF  AND  ABSORPTION. 

Concerning  the  surface  run-off,  it  appears  to  be  generally  held  that 
when  the  rainfall  is  small,  the  dead  leaves,  the  moss,  the  tangle  of 
undergrowth,  and  the  like,  in  the  forests  may  modify  or  entirely 
prevent  flow,  and  may  slightly  intensify  low-water  conditions  of 
summer,  while  on  the  cleared  surfaces,  except  that  of  freshly-cultivated 
fields,  this  is  not  so  markedly  the  case.  When  the  rains  are  heavy  and 
continued,  there  is  surface  flow  in  the  forests  as  well  as  in  the  open, 
and  the  two  do  not  materially  differ,  for  it  can  be  shown  that  the 
run-off  from  a  smooth  surface  and  from  one  covered  with  sticks, 
dense  grasses,  or  forest,  are  equal  after  the  rough  surface  becomes 
saturated,  and  it  is  long  after  all  surfaces  have  become  saturated  that 
flood  conditions  can  occur. 

Because  of  their  open,  porous  condition  sandy  soils  and  freshly 
plowed  fields  are  the  best  absorbers,  and  in  general  forest  ground  is 
thought  to  be  more  penetrable  to  moisture  than  is  that  of  the  cleared 
fields,  except  when  the  latter  are  freshly  broken,  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  cleared  land  is  either  broken  and  cultivated  several  tunes  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  or  else  it  is  occupied  by  vegetation  that  exercises  either 
partly  or  wholly  as  great  a  conserving  influence  as  the  forest. 

All  of  these  problems  could  be  definitely  settled  beyond  the  possi¬ 
bility  of  argument  if  we  had  accurate  river  gaugings  from  day  to  day 
and  year  to  year,  together  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  rainfall  and 
of  the  proportion  of  the  wooded  to  cleared  areas,  data  that  unfor¬ 
tunately  we  do  not  have.  We  must,  therefore,  reason  empirically 
from  the  best  information  at  hand,  and  this  insufficiency  of  data 
renders  less  positive  the  conclusions  of  all  investigators,  no  matter 
which  side  of  the  question  they  may  be  on. 

EFFECT  OF  FORESTS  ON  FLOODS  IN  FRANCE. 

An  important  contribution  to  this  discussion  was  made  in  1873  by 
Capt.  Charles  J.  idlen,  of  the  Engineer  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  in  the 
translation  that  he  made  of  extracts  from  the  work  of  M.  F.  \  alles, 
which  treats  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  floods  and  inundations. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  17 

This  translation  contains  quotations  from  the  works  of  M.  Belgrand 
-and  other  French  engineers,  who  had  made  the  hydrology  of  the 
basin  of  the  Seine  a  special  study.®  Among  other  things  M.  Bel- 
grand  says: 

This  country  comprises  all  or  part  of  21  Departments,  as  follows:  Aisne,  Ardennes, 
Aube,  Cote  d’ Or,  Eure,  Eure-et-Loire,  Loiret,  Marne,  Haute-Marne,  Nievre,  Nord’ 
Oise,  Pas-de-Calais,  Seine,  Seine-Inferieure,  Seine-et-Mame,  Somme,  Vosges,  and 
Yonne,  and  comprises  an  area  of  about  107,000  square  kilometers,  nearly  equal  to 
the  fifth  part  of  the  area  of  country  comprising  the  86  Departments. 

The  most  irregular  streams,  those  most  subject  to  rapid  rises,  are  found  especially 
in  the  Departments  of  the  Yonne,  Nievre,  and  Cote  d’Or,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  those 
of  the  Aube,  Haute-Marne,  and  Aisne.  This  region  is  very  woody,  more  so,  perhaps, 
than  the  rest  of  France.  The  most  remarkable  Departments  in  regard  to  the  regularity 
of  the  water  courses  which  rise  within  them  are  the  Eure,  Eure-et-Loire,  Nord,  Oise, 
Pas-de-Calais,  Seine-Inferieure,  Somme,  the  chalky  parts  of  the  Aube  and  of  the 
Marne,  and  those  portions  of  the  Seine-et-Oise  and  Loiret  in  which  the  limestones  of 
La  Beauce  abound.  The  majority  of  the  streams  in  these  countries  are  subject  to 
slight  rises  of  .short  duration,  their  stage  of  water  varying  but  little.  This  group  of 
Departments  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  sparsely  wooded  in  France,  because  the  Eure, 
Eure-et-Loire,  Nord,  Oise,  Pas-de-Calais,  Seine-Inferieure,  and  the  Somme  have 
only  about  one-tenth  of  their  surface  wooded,  and  the  plateaus  of  La  Beauce  and  the 
chalky  plains  of  Champagne  are,  if  we  except  some  recent  plantations  of  pine,  com¬ 
pletely  bare  of  trees. 

In  order  to  test  the  question  as  to  the  effect  of  forests  in  regulating  the  flow  of  water 
M.  Belgrand  had  daily  measurements  made  from  November,  1850,  to  May,  1853,  of 
the  discharges  of  the  Cousin  and  of  the  Grenetierre,  which  is  one  of  its  affluents.  Both 
of  these  basins  are  of  granite  formation,  impermeable  and  otherwise  alike,  but  the 
first  is  only  about  one-third  wooded,  while  the  second  is  entirely  covered  with  trees. 
Notwithstanding  this  great  difference  as  regards  the  extent  of  forests  in  each,  the 
results  have  been  the  same  in  both,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  account: 

“The  regimen  of  each  is  identically  the  same,  although  their  valleys  are  unequally 
wooded.  Their  waters  rise  and  fall  at  the  same  rate,  whether  in  rainy  weather  or  in 
dry,  in  winter  or  in  summer;  their  low  winter  regimen  is  more  abundant  than  that 
of  summer.  . 

“A  heavy  rain  in  winter  produces  in  both  a  sudden  flood  of  greater  or  less  height, 
but  of  very  short  duration,  followed  by  a  long  stage  of  tolerably  high  water;  the  sudden 
and  high  freshets  take  place  in  each  at  the  same  time.” 

The  different  details  concerning  the  flow  of  water  are,  then,  exactly  the  same  in 
the  two  basins,  and  yet  one  is  entirely  covered  with  forests,  while  in  the  other  two- 
thirds  is  bare  of  trees.  M.  Belgrand  has  made  a  number  of  more  detailed  observations 
yet,  which  show,  further,  that  it  is  not  upon  forests  but  upon  cultivated  ground  that 
the  greatest  regularity  in  flowage  is  observed.  *  *  * 

In  Valles’s  paper  he  quotes  from  a  report  on  the  basin  of  the  Eure 
made  by  M.  St.  Clair,  engineer  in  chief,  showing  the  beneficial  effects 
of  cleared  and  cultivated  lands  in  diminishing  by  absorption  the 
amount  of  surface  water,  as  follows : 

All  the  valleys, seven  those  of  least  extent,  are  cut  up  by  ravines  which  were  often 
formerly  the  beds  of  torrents.  Within  the  last  twelve  years  the  condition  has  changed; 
they  are  now  almost  always  dry.  The  cause  of  this  great  change,  the  progress  of  agri¬ 
culture,  is  generally  recognized  in  the  country.  The  soil  has  been  cultivated  more 
and  rendered  more  permeable;  the  farmers,  reaping  more  advantages  from  the  culture 
of  the  ground,  and  fully  aware  of  the  utility  of  improving  it,  have,  by  means  of  ditches, 
hedges,  and  endikements  properly  located,  controlled  the  flow  of  water  everywhere 
preventing  erosion,  causing  fertilizing  deposits  of  sediment,  and  relieving  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  from  the  asperities  which  interfered  with  cultivation.  The  waters, 
retarded  thus  in  their  flow,  have  settled  in  great  part  through  the  ground  and  disap¬ 
peared  before  reaching  the  ravines. 

.  These  agricultural  improvements,  in  a  country  where  land  susceptible  of  cultiva¬ 
tion,  amounts  to  sixty-one  one-hundredths  of  the  area  of  the  country,  have,  then 
reduced  the  surface  flowage  and  increased  the  absorption. 


°Annales  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  annee  1852,  premier  semestre,  p.  102. 
26320—10 - 2 


18  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


They  have  rendered  less  frequent  and  formidable  the  freshets,  which,  in  the  basin 
of  the  Eure,  are  to  be  attributed  to  an  excess  of  surface  water  rather  than  to  any  supply 
from  springs,  which  latter  is  almost  always  invariable. 

The  effect  upon  springs  of  cutting  down  forests  can  now  be  easily  eliminated.  We 
will  divide  them  into  two  classes,  viz,  superficial  and  subterranean. 

The  first  issue  from  the  points  of  the  surface  very  near  to  the  strata  in  which  the 
waters  which  produce  them  collect.  The  second,  on  the  contrary,  are  found  very  far 
below  these  strata,  and  the  water,  in  order  to  find  an  outlet,  traverses  frequently  long 
distances  underground. 

The  first,  generally  small,  pertain  indifferently  to  absorbent  or  nonabeorbent  ground ; 
but  the  second,  occasionally  very  powerful,  pertain  essentially  and  almost  exclusively 
to  permeable  soils. 

Now,  it  is  indisputable  that  the  continual  humidity  of  the  soil  of  forests  is  favorable 
to  the  first  and  ought  to  maintain  in  their  feeble  flow  considerable  regularity.  It  is, 
then,  very  likely  that  the  clearing  away  of  forests  and  exposing  the  earth  to  alternations 
of  drought  and  moisture  would  alter  the  regimen  of  these  springs;  that  these  would 
be  more  abundant  in  time  of  rain;  that  they  would  decrease  in  summer  and  possibly 
be  dry  for  several  months  in  the  year.  This  explains  the  disappearance  of  certain 
springs  after  the  patting  down  of  forests. 

As  regards  the  second  group,  which  are  plentifully  supplied  by  infiltration  through 
the  permeable  soils,  it  is  different. 

From  the  different  manner  in  which,  as  regards  absorption,  wooded  and  cultivated 
soils  act,  we  see  that  in  the  first  this  faculty  is  in  great  part  destroyed,  wrhile  in 
the  second  it  is  increased.  To  remove  standing  timber  from  permeable  soils  is  to 
restore  to  them  the  facility  of  transmitting  the  waters  which  the  forest  vegetation, 
whether  by  the  spreading  of  its  roots,  by  the  fall  of  leaves,  or  by  the  compactness  of 
the  soil,  had  taken  from  them,  and  it  results,  consequently,  in  a  more  abundant 
supply  of  water  to  the  subterranean  springs. 

Thus,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  most  abundant  of  all  of  them,  especially  in 
seasons  of  low  water,  are  located  beneath  the  vast  ledges  of  limestone  which  are  almost 
entirely  denuded ;  for  instance,  those  of  Cahors  and  Louysse,  in  the  department  du  Lot, 
and  the  famous  fountain  of  Vaucluse,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made. 

M.  Belgrand  further  says: 

Now  these  basins,  so  remarkably  alike,  we  have;  they  are  those  of  the  Seine  in 
the  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Everything  in  these  is  alike 
excepting  the  extent  of  the  forests,  which  has  steadily  decreased,  so  that  if  we  were 
in  possession  of  adequate  information  of  some  exact  measurements  of  the  greatest 
inundations  during  the  time  specified,  we  could  easily  test  the  correctness  of  our 
theories. 

In  fact,  observations  of  this  nature  have  been  made;  they  go  back  to  1615,  about 
the  time  when  French  industry  began  to  develop,  and  when,  consequently,  the  felling 
of  timber  to  a  great  extent  commenced. 

This  places  at  our  disposal  an  interval  of  five  half  centuries. 

In  a  memoir  published  in  1814  by  the  engineer  Egault,  these  observations  were 
compiled,  discussed,  and  arranged  with  reference  to  the  heights  of  the  most  marked 
inundations.  We  add  to  the  results  collated  by  them  those  which  have  been  obtained 
since  his  time  and  give  them  in  the  following  table: 


Dates  of  the  inundations. 


eight  at 
the  bridge 
of  La  Tour- 
nelle. 


Mean  per 
half  cen¬ 
tury. 


July  11, 1615 . 

January,  1649 . 

January,  1651 . 

March  1, 1658 . 

March,  1690 . 

March,  1711 . 

December  25, 1740. 

January,  1751 . 

November  14, 1764 

March  4, 1784 . 

February  4,  1799. . 
January  3, 1802. . . 

March  3, 1807 . 

May,  1836 . 

February,  1850.... 


Feet. 

29. 99 
25.10 
25.59 

28. 87 
24.  61 
24.  77 
25.92 
21.98 
22. 97 
21.85 

22. 87 
24.  44 
21.85 
18.  66 
19.91 


Feet. 

27. 53 

26. 36 

•25.34 

22. 42 

21.22 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  19 

The  deductions  from  this  table  are  striking.  The  continued  decrease  of  the  floods 
for  each  half  century  is  remarkable.  The  waters  attained  a  mean  height  of  27.53 
feet  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century;  they  only  attained  a  mean  of  21.22 
feet  in  the  present.  According  to  this,  we  have  experienced  an  amelioration  of 
nearly  6.56  feet,  and  yet  the  trees  have  been  steadily  and  unceasingly  cut  down, 
and  the  forests  transformed  into  cultivated  farms. 

What  would  we  gain,  then,  to-day,  I  ask,  in  rewooding  our  field?  It  would  be 
but  an  unfortunate  attempt  to  restore  the  old  order  of  things,  when  the  floods  of  the 
.  Seine  rose  to  29.53  feet  above  the  low  stage. 

In  connection  with  the  conclusions  reached  in  this  report,  as  well 
as  with  regard  to  those  reached  by  the  foresters  and  others  who  differ 
from  my  views,  I  would  emphasize  the  fact  that  none  of  us  have 
flood  data  extending  over  any  great  period  of  time,  but  in  Europe 
we  fortunately  have  some  long-period  observations.  The  preceding 
pages  show  the  result  of  observations  made  by  competent  engineers 
during  two  and  one-half  centuries  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and 
show  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  and  constant  decrease  in  the 
height  of  floods  with  the  diminution  of  forests. 

In  Germany  another  long-period  record  is  presented.  Mr.  Ernest 
Lauder,  chief  of  the  hydrographic  bureau  of  the  Austrian  Govern¬ 
ment,  recently  made  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  records  of 
the  Danube,  the  great  river  of  central  Europe.  He  prepared  an 
exhaustive  report  on  the  destructive  floods  in  the  Danube  that 
occurred  in  1897  and  1899,  and  in  this  report  traces  the  history  of 
the  floods  of  the  Danube  for  emht  hundred  years,  taking  into  account 
125  different  floods.  His  conclusions  are  that  progressive  deforesta¬ 
tion  of  the  country  has  had  no  effect  in  increasing  the  frequency  of 
floods  or  in  augmenting  their  height.  Among  other  things  he  showed 
that  the  flood  of  1899,  which  was  a  summer  flood,  was  severest  where 
it  came  from  the  heavily  wooded  districts. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  barren  condition  of  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  great 
cities  and  teeming  populations  once  covered  the  regions  now  barren; 
but  this  does  not  prove  that  if  there  has  been  a  decrease  in  the  rainfall 
it  is  due  to  deforestation,  for  everywhere  in  this  region  are  evidences 
of  extensive  irrigation  that  was  practised  at  the  time  this  region 
was  thickly  populated.  The  date  palm,  the  vine,  and  the  fig  tree 
will  grow  there  as  luxuriantly  to-day  as  in  the  old  Biblical  days,  if 
artificial  irrigation  is  used,  as  'was  formerly  done.  It  is  not  believed 
that  the  cutting  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  has  had  anything  to  do 
with  the  dryness  of  the  adjacent  regions. 

At  the  tenth  International  Congress  of  Irrigation,  held  at  Milan 
in  1905,  papers  were  presented  by  representatives  from  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Jtussia,  in  which  the  writers  heartily 
favored  the  protection  of  the  forests  and  their  cultivation.  But 
these  writers  were  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  forests  exercise 
little  influence  upon  either  the  high  water  or  the  low  water  of  rivers. 

In  this  connection  I  will  quote  from  Col.  H.  M.  Chittenden,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  volume  34,  page  944,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  as  follows: 

.  The.  constantly  reiterated  statement  that  floods  are  increasing  in  frequency  and 
intensity,  as  compared  with  former  times,  has  nothing  to  support  it.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  periods  when  floods  are  more  frequent  than  at  others,  and  hasty  conclusions 
are  always  drawn  at  such  times;  but,  taking  the  records  year  after  year  for  consider¬ 
able  periods,  no  change  worth  considering  is  discoverable.  The  explanation  of  these 
periods  of  high  water,  like  the  one  now  prevailing,  must,  of  course,  be  sought  in  pre- 


20  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

cipitation.  That  is  where  floods  come  from,  and  it  is  very  strange  that  those  who  are 
looking  so  eagerly  for  a  cause  of  these  floods  jump  at  an  indirect  cause  and  leave  the 
direct  one  entirely  untouched.  In  the  records  of  precipitation,  wherever  they  exist, 
will  be  found  a  full  and  complete  explanation  of  every  one  of  the  floods  that  have 
seemed  unusually  frequent  and  severe  in  recent  years. 

THE  SOURCE  OF  FLOOD  WATERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Before  one  can  get  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
problem  involved  in  the  creation  of  the  floods  of  the  United  States, 
it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  first  study  chart  A,  which  gives  a 
typical  illustration  of  the  cyclonic  storms  that  frequently  form  on 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau,  either  on  its  northern,  central,  or 
southern  portions.  Under  the  influence  of  gravity  air  flows  from 
regions  where  the  pressure  is  great  toward  the  regions  where  it  is  less. 
In  the  case  illustrated  by  this  chart  the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by 
the  direction  in  which  the  arrows  point,  is  flowing  from  the  region 
marked  “high,”  which  is  central  over  the  Carolinas,  toward  the 
region  where  the  pressure  is  low,  which  is  central  over  Montana, 
and  the  vaporous  atmosphere  that  rises  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  adjacent  ocean  is  carried  far  into  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
Conditions  similar  to  these  occur  many  times  each  month,  and  as 
a  result  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  United  States  are 
bathed  in  a  succession  of  rains  which,  as  shown  by  chart  B,  gradually 
thin  out  and  largely  disappear  on  the  eastward  edge  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Plateau,  because  the  currents  of  air  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  do  not  reach  farther  inland. 

STATEMENT  BY  MR.  BAILEY  WILLIS. 

In  the  May  issue,  1909,  of  the  magazine  entitled  “Conservation,” 
page  2G2,  Mr.  Bailey  Willis  makes  the  statement: 

The  moisture  which  falls  upon  North  America  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow  comes 
chiefly  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  smaller  proportion,  rising  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  West  Indian  seas,  falls  upon  the  eastern  United  States. 

It  is  true  that  chart  B,  giving  the  normal  annual  precipitation 
indicates  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  furnishes  precipitation  that  is  heavy 
along  the  immediate  coast,  but  that  it  is  the  principal  source,  as  Mr 
Willis  says,  of  the  moisture  that  falls  upon  the  North  American  Con¬ 
tinent,  is  not  borne  out  bv  the  facts  exhibited  by  the  precipitation 
chart  herein  produced  and  by  the  inflowing  currents  of  air  that  are 
shown  on  chart  A. 

The  range  of  mountains  on  the  Pacific  coast  intercepts  the  inflow 
of  the  vaporous  atmosphere,  which  is  comparatively  shallow,  and 
precipitates  its  aqueous  vapor  on  the  windward  side  of  the  range, 
and  mainly  on  the  north  half  of  the  windward  side,  because  storms 
seldom  enter  from  the  southern  half.  To  be  sure,  some  of  the  scant 
precipitation  that  falls  on  the  plateau  does  drift  over  the  tops  of 
these  mountains,  but  the  amount  is  small.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
Pacific  Ocean  has  little  influence  on  the  precipitation  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States,  which  fact  is  well  understood  by  meteorolo¬ 
gists;  and  I  believe  that  most  of  them  will  join  me  in  the  belief  that 
the  only  way  that  man  could  materially  affect  the  rainfall  of  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States  would  be  to  erect  a  mountain  barrier 


vaporous  atmosphere  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean  is  drawn  inland. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  21 


22  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

10,000  feet  high  skirting  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  coasts.  Of 
course  this  is  impossible,  but  if  nature  had  erected  it  there  would  be 
no  question  about  floods  in  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  rivers  and 
their  tributaries,  for  there  would  be  neither  rivers  nor  tributaries; 
just  as  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  rain  would  fall  on  the  ocean  side  of 
the  mountains,  and  the  world’s  greatest  granary  would  be  a  barren 
waste. 

Prof.  Frank  H.  Bigelow,  on  page  17  of  A  Manual  for  Observers  in 
Climatology  and  Evaporation,  says: 

All  this  distribution  of  the  general  circulating  currents,  and  the  consequent  pre¬ 
cipitation,  would  occur  whether  there  were  forests  or  not  growing  on  the  land  masses. 
It  may  be  proper  to  say  that  the  forests  follow  the  precipitation  and  do  not  precede  it. 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  action  of  the  sun  on  the 
waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  ocean  heavily  charge 
the  air  with  water  vapor,  and  that  this  vaporous  atmosphere  is 
carried  inland  by  the  circulation  of  the  air  in  such  storms  as  are 
described  in  a  preceding  paragraph  and  illustrated  on  chart  A,  and 
that  the  effect  is  shown  on  chart  B  in  the  form  of  heavy  precipitation 
in  the  region  of  the  Gulf,  which  gradually  shades  away  toward  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

It  is  therefore  apparent  that  the  precipitation  that  causes  floods 
in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  is  from  the  aqueous  vapor 
that  is  raised  up  from  the  vast  waters  to  the  south  and  southeast  of 
our  continent,  and  that  the  supply  is  inexhaustible.  Our  rainfall, 
then,  is  the  result  of  such  fundamentally  great  causes  as  not  to  be  appre¬ 
ciably  affected  by  the  planting  or  cutting  away  of  forests,  or  by  any  of 
the  operations  of  man  in  changing  the  character  of  the  surface  covering 
of  the  continent,  although  to  statistically  and  positively  settle  the 
question  beyond  the  possibility  of  argument  it  would  be  necessary 
to  have  scientific  data  of  temperature,  rainfall,  and  the  height  of 
rivers,  beginning  at  the  first  settlement  of  the  continent  and  con¬ 
tinuing  through  to  the  present  time.  Such  records,  of  course,  are 
not  in  existence.  But  the  fundamental  fact  that  the  precipitation 
of  the  United  States  is  due  to  the  great  hemispherical  circulation  of 
the  air,  and  to  the  relation  of  the  great  bodies  of  water  to  land,  and 
the  direction  of  the  vaporous-bearing  currents,  and  the  trend  of 
mountain  systems  is  something  that  can  be  positively  shown. 

Mr.  Willis  further  says,  in  the  same  issue  of  Conservation,  page 
265,  that: 

The  mountains  are  wet  because  they  are  high,  and  they  are  heavily  forested  because 
they  are  wet.  But  there  is  also  a  reciprocal  action  of  the  forests  on  the  wetness,  for 
the  radiation  from  the  dark-green  expanse  is  comparatively  uniform  and  promotes 
frequent  and  steady  rains.  Were  the  mountains  bare  they  would,  like  the  bared 
sierras  of  Spain,  receive  occasional  but  violent  downpours  and  send  down  excessive 
and  disastrous  floods,  even  more  disastrous  than  now.  *  *  *  For  in  so  far  as  we 
clothe  the  surface  with  green  crops  we  lower  the  temperature  of  the  rising  air  and  favor 
precipitation  on  the  verdure-covered  plain. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  either  confirm  or  disprove  this  statement 
of  Mr.  Willis.  Certain  it  is  that  the  rain  is  precipitated  largely  from 
air  masses  that  exist  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  that  the  influence  that  Mr.  Willis  describes  is  in  a 
thin  stratum  *of  afr  close  to  the  earth.  Rarely  is  this  stratum  satu¬ 
rated,  even  during  the  fall  of  rain.  If,  then,  the  processes  that  he 
describes  do  not  bring  the  air  to  the  saturation  point,  and  if  the 


Chart  B. — Annual  precipitation. 


23 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


24  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

precipitation  occurs  in  the  regions  above  those  affected  by  these 
local  surface  conditions,  I  am  unable  to  see  how  the  rain  can  be 
either  increased  or  decreased  in  its  amount.  Certain  it  is  that  most 
of  the  leading  meteorologists  of  the  world  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
rainfall  on  continents  is  caused  by  the  fundamentally  great  operations 
of  nature  as  described  above. 


EROSION. 

Another  effect  of  deforestation,  that  of  erosion,  is  of  importance, 
but  of  unequal  importance  in  different  sections.  In  level  countries 
it  makes  but  little  difference  in  this  particular  whether  the  ground 
is  waste,  cultivated,  o  densely  forested,  while  in  hilly  or  mountainous 
sections  the  result  is  different.  When  the  soil  becomes  well  sodded 
with  grass,  erosion  is  little  worse  in  fields  than  in  the  woods,  but 
usually  the  fields  are  cultivated  from  time  to  time,  and  occasions 
come  when  the  best  of  care  and  cultivation  can  not  prevent  the 
formation  of  bad  gullies  that  injure  both  the  gullied  fields  and  those 
of  the  lower  grounds  that  are  overflowed. 

Of  course,  though,  a  field  with  an  occasional  wash  yields  more 
food  material  than  the'  same  area  covered  by  a  forest  of  any  kind, 
so  that  only  in  exceptional  cases — those  in  which  erosion  would 
probably  be  unavoidable  and  ruinous — is  this  a  sufficient  argument 
against  clearing  away  the  woods  and  the  planting  of  crops  in  their 
stead,  for  the  time  is  come  when  we  should  not  only  increase  the  yield 
per  acre  by  wise  rotation  of  crops  on  cultivated  ground ,  but  clear  up  and 
seed  to  wheat,  corn,  grass,  and  fruits  millions  of  acres  that  now  he  idle 
under  brush  or  forest.  In  other  words,  every  acre  that  will  grow  food 
for  the  people,  and  thereby  reduce  its  cost  and  furnish  sustenance 
for  our  increasing  population  and  the  teeming  millions  that  are  on 
the  way  to  these  shores,  should  be  so  employed;  the  remainder  should 
grow  timber  that  should  be  protected  in  its  growth.  Man  and  beast 
love  the  cooling  shade,  and  the  eye  is  pleased  by  the  beauty  of  the 
wooded  landscape.  Therefore  begin  with  the  children  and  teach 
them  to  plant  trees  along  the  highways  and  byways  and  on  the  barren 
spots  that  will  not  produce  food.  Thus  may  we  approach  this  prob¬ 
lem  rationally,  with  the  object  of  gaining  the  greatest  good  for  the 
greatest  number  for  the  longest  period  of  time. 

RATIO  OF  THE  FORESTED  AREA,  OR  MOUNTAIN  WATERSHEDS,  TO  THE 

TOTAL  WATERSHED. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  not  enough  consideration  has  been  given 
to  the  relative  magnitude  of  the  areas  involved  in  the  creation  of 
floods.  A  flood  in  any  given  stream  is  usually  caused  by  the  pre-  . 
cipitation  over  its  entire  watershed  or  over  those  of  the  major  tribu¬ 
taries  and  is  affected  but  comparatively  little  in  a  region  like  that 
of  the  Ohio  basin  by  the  precipitation  over  the  extreme  upper  reaches, 
usually  the  forested  area,  or  any  other  area  that  could  be  reforested 
without  seriously  encroaching  upon  the  rich  alluvial  plains. 

A  critical  examination  of  Chart  C,  which  shows  the  entire  river 
system  of  the  Ohio  basin  and  gives  the  exact  limits  of  its  bound¬ 
aries,  and  which  also  indicates  the  elevations,  shows  what  a  compara¬ 
tively  small  area  in  relation  to  the  total  catchment  basin  lies  at 


26320—10 


(To  face  page  25.) 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  25 

elevations  of  more  than  1,000  or  1,500  feet  above  sea  level.  This 
chart  furnishes  a  conclusive  answer  to  those  who  believe  that  floods 
except,  of  course,  torrents  in  the  mountain  creeks,  are  caused  by 
the  precipitation  on  the  comparatively  small  area  of  the  water¬ 
sheds  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers.  If  it  be  granted  that  forests 

:he  ,lo7  of  streams,  and  I  doubt  that  they  do  except  as 
stated  above,  it  will  be  necessary,  m  order  to  have  an  appreciable 
effect  on  navigable  or  other  important  rivers,  to  reforest  areas  many 
times  m  excess  of  anything  that  so  far  have  been  contemplated 
lhf  rugged  mountain  slopes  and  tops,  where  land  has  little  value,  are 
unimportant  as  flood  producers.  It  will  be  necessary  actually  to  reforest 
the  lower  slopes  and  valleys.  where  the  land  is  of  great  value  and  where 

conclusion  deVOte^  to  a9ncultural  purposes.  I  can  not  escape  this 

ARE  FLOODS  INCREASING? 

Two  papers  have  recently  appeared,  in  both  of  which  the  argu¬ 
ment  is  made  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency  toward  increasing 
flood  frequency  as  a  result  of  deforestation.  The  first  of  these 
papeis  m  point  of  time  was  that  of  Mr.  M.  O.  Leighton,  Chief  Hy- 
diographer  United  States  Geological  Survey. “  The  second  paper 
appeared  in  volume  2,  Senate  Document  No.  676,  beginning^ 
?q?n  1 a  an/i  a-er  as  Fore|t  Service  Circular  No.  176,  jfnuary  11, 

SVS;  uistX'fi Mr-  Willi“ L' 

!ntlrinfnP°?  a  discussion  of  these  papers  I  wish  to  draw 
attention  to  the  following  statement  in  the  last-named  paper,  page  3 : 

*A  *  Both  the  Geological  Survey  and  the  Forest  Service  have  secured  data  b 

-esu  ts  wa/rant  the  statement  that  unmistakably  floods  are  steadily  on  the 
increase  m  some  of  our  most  important  rivers. 

H Ut  in  oooncction  with  this  statement  that  substan- 

twlL.  l°  ,  a  i  used  .by  the  authors  of  the  papers  above  men- 
Bureau^  draWn  fr°m  th®  records  of  the  United  States  Weather 

In  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234  the  author  has  made  a  diagrammatic 

wWeliTbe  h°f  data  comP°sed  of  annual  and  decennial  means, 
where by  he  shows  an  apparent  progressive  increase  in  the  number 

of  flood  days  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  other  points,  without  a  pro¬ 
portionate  increase  m  the  amount  of  precipitation.  It  appears  to 
me  that  his  argument  is  defective  in  at  feast  two  particulars^ 

p;  IISt'u11heL-00d  or  danger  stage  of  the  rivers  at  the  various  places 
discussed  by  him  was  long  ago  fixed  by  the  Weather  Bureau  as  being 
at  the  point  where  the  river  either  overflows  its  banks  or  damages 
property  adjacent  thereto.  Mr.  Leighton  has  disregarded  thfse 
points  and  arbitrarily  assumed,  for  the  purpose  of  his  discussion,  a 

No.^34°rt  °f  Natl0naI  Conservation  Commission,  p.  95,  and  Water-Supply  Paper 
&The  italics  9re  mine.  (Author.) 

researcSTndToPncluSs  ?°'  ?34  *5®  imPression  seems  to  be  given  that  the  author’s 


2C)  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

t 

considerably  lower  stage  in  each  case,  so  that  his  argument  fails 
completely  so  far  as  it  relates  to  flood  frequency;  for  example,  at 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  he  assumes  a  stage  of  20  feet,  whereas  the  Ohio 
at  that  point  is  not  in  flood  until  a  stage  of  36  feet  is  reached.  What 
the  author  is  discussing  is  therefore  not  floods  as  such,  but  moderate 
stages  of  the  river. 

What  appears  to  me  to  be  a  second  defect  in  the  author’s  argument 
lies  in  his  acceptance  of  the  total  number  of  so-called  flood  days 
(20  feet  or  more  being  a  day  of  flood)  divided  by  the  annual  pre¬ 
cipitation  as  an  indication  of  flood  intensity,  since  the  annual  rain¬ 
fall,  as  he  himself  acknowledges,®  bears  little  or  no  relation  to  floods. 
Greater  floods  may  occur  during  a  year  of  deficient  precipitation 
than  during  one  of  excessive  annual  precipitation  if  the  proper  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  rainfall  be  concentrated  over  a  limited  area  in  a 
limited  time. 

An  examination  of  the  data  for  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  given  by  that 
author,  discloses  the  fact  that  there  has  not  been  any  increase  in  the 
number  of  so-called  flood  days  at  that  place.  The  average  amount 
of  precipitation  for  each  daily  river  stage  of  20  feet  or  more,  as  de¬ 
termined  by  him,  is  almost  exactly  the  same  for  the  two  periods, 
1884  to  1895  and  1896  to  1907,  inclusive.  But  in  the  number  of 
actual  flood  days ,  as  determined  by  Professor  Frankenfield,  the 
official  in  charge  of  the  Weather  Bureau  river  and  flood  service, 
that  is,  33  feet  or  over  (and  the  river  does  not  reach  the  danger  or 
flood  stage  until  it  stands  33  feet  above  low  water),  there  was  a 
considerable  decrease  in  the  second  period,  in  harmony  with  the 

precipitation.  . 

I  understand  that  when  Mr.  Leighton  speaks  of  the  ratio  or  the 
annual  number  of  days  of  flood  to  annual  precipitation,  he  means 
the  number  of  days  (stage  above  20  feet)  in  each  year  divided  by  the 
total  precipitation  for  the  year.  Thus,  if  the  number  of  flood  days  in 
any  one  year  is  20,  and  the  total  precipitation  is  40  inches,  the  ratio  . 
would  be  20  divided  by  40,  or  0.5.  These  ratios  are  totaled  in 
eleven-year  periods  and  the  average  of  each  period  obtained.  The 
average  for  the  first  eleven  years,  as  obtained  by  him,  was  0.38,  and 
of  the  second,  0.48,  indicating,  in  his  opinion,  an  increase  in  flood 
intensity  during  the  second  eleven-year  period,  as  1  inch  of  rain 
made  only  0.38  of  a  flood  during  the  first  period,  while  in  the  second 
period  1  inch  of  rain  made  0.48  of  a  flood.  In  other  words,  during 
the  first  eleven-year  period  1  inch  of  rain  made  only  38  per  cent  of 
20  feet  of  water,  or  7.6  feet;  while  during  the  second  period  1  inch 
of  rain  made  48  per  cent  of  20  feet  of  water,  or  9.6  feet. 

This  line  of  reasoning  leads  to  wrong  conclusions,  as  it  is  certain 
that  the  ratios  obtained  by  dividing  the  number  of  days  that  a  cer¬ 
tain  gage  reading  was  reached  or  maintained  by  the  annual,  or  for 
that  matter  by  any  other,  precipitation,  without  entering  into  the 
problem  the  exact  height  of  water  gives  a  meaningless  result.  It 
appears  to  me  to  be  a  fatal  method  of  reasoning  to  take  simply  the 
number  of  days  that  a  stage  of  20  feet  was  reached,  without  regard 
to  heights  above  20  feet.  Therefore,  if  on  a  certain  number  of  days 
the  gage  reading  was  exactlv  20  feet,  one  would  get  precisely  the 
same  quotient  as  he  would  if  on  the  same  number  of  days  the  gage 
readings  were  largely  in  excess  of  20  feet. 


a  Page  22,  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  27 


I  now  come  to  that  part  of  the  discussion  in  Water-Supply  Paper 
No.  234  which  has 'been  widely  quoted  by  the  adherents  of  the  forest- 
control  idea,  viz,  the  proposition  that,  although  the  flood  periods  in 
the  Tennessee  have  decreased  in  later  years  due  to  diminished  pre¬ 
cipitation,  the  flood  tendencies  have  increased.  This  idea,  like 
others  that  have  been  put  forward  in  this  connection,  is  important 
if  it  can  be  substantiated;  and  if  it  is  proven,  then  it  is  incumbent 
upon  the  author  of  that  paper  to  show  that  the  increase  is  due  to 
deforestation,  which  he  does  not  do.  I  have  no  data  as  to  the  area 
that  has  been  cleared  or  that  has  been  allowed  to  revert  to  forests, 
but  it  can  not  be  great  in  twelve  years. 

This  whole  matter  of  the  influence  of  forests  upon  climate  and 
floods  is  so  important  to  the  nation  in  planning  a  correct  economic 
policy  for  the  future  that  we  should  move  cautiously  and  be  sure 
that  we  are  building  safely  and  wisely.  .  I  am  heart  and  soul  with 
the  noble  men  and  women  who,  as  individuals  or  collectively,  are 
striving  to  protect  and  conserve  in  the  interests  of  the  whole  people 
the  nation’s  resources  of  forest  and  field  and  of  minerals  and  water 
power,  and  in  this  opinion  I  am  generally  and  strongly  sustained  by 
the  scientific  staff  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 

With  regard  to  the  matters  of  which  this  paper  specifically  treats  I 
wish  for  the  freest,  fullest,  and  fairest  discussion  and  investigation, 
with  the  end  in  view  of  correcting  error  if  there  be  such  and  of  finding 
common  ground  upon  which  all  well-meaning  persons  may  stand. 
Those  whose  official  reports  differ  from  mine  I  believe  to  be  as  honest 
and  as  sincere  in  their  investigations  and  conclusions  as  I  know 
myself  to  be. 

To  return  to  Supply  Paper  No.  234,  referred  to  above,  I  quote  as 
follows  from  page  23 : 

.  The  results  for  the  Tennessee  basin  cover  twenty-foiir  years,  from  1884  to  1907 
inclusive.  *  *  *  Summing  up  the  flood-producing  rains  for  the  twenty-four  year 

period,  it  is  found  that  the  total  is  335,  of  which  313  occurred  from  December  to  May 
inclusive,  and  the  remaining  22  during  the  other  portion  of  the  year.  It  is  apparent 
that  the  number  of  such  rains  from  June  to  November  is  not  sufficient  to  afford  a  basis 
of  comparison.  Therefore  only  the  December  to  May  floods  will  be  considered.  *  *  * 
On  dividing  the  period  covered  by  these  313  floods  equally,  two  consecutive  twelve- 
year  periods  are  afforded,  which  give  a  basis  of  comparison.  The  floods  in  the  later 
period,  resulting  from  a  given  depth  of  storm  precipitation,  are  clearly  shown  to  be 
more  severe  than  in  the  earlier  period.  The  method  of  presentation  further  makes  it 

possible  to  compute  the  increase  in  flood  tendency  due  to  deforestation  in  the  Ten¬ 
nessee. 

******* 

If  we  now  divide  the  number  of  flood  days  by  the  number  of  storms  the  result  will 
be  the  number  of  days  per  storm. 


Days  of  flood  per  storm. 


Storms  in  inches  precipitated. 


JTCilUU. 

1  to  1.5. 

1.5  to  2. 

2  to  2.5. 

2.5  to  3. 

3  to  3.5. 

3.5  to  4. 

4  to  4.5. 

4.5  to  5. 

1884-1895 . 

0.7 

.4 

0.5 

.9 

2.5 

2.6 

1.8 

2.7 

2.6 

3.2 

5 

6 

6 

8 

8.1 

6.7 

1896-1907 . 

Percentage  increase .... 

-  43 

80 

4 

50 

22 

20 

33 

-  17 

The  algebraic  sum  of  the  above  percentages  is  149  and  the  average  is  18.75,  which 
sums  up  the  effects  of  deforestation  on  run-off  from  1884  to  1907,  inclusive. 


28  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

I  invite  attention  to  the  figures  given  in  this  table  “Days  of  flood 
per  storm.’ ’  If  the  run-off  in  the  second  period  was  greater  than  in 
the  first,  due  to  deforestation,  would  not  the  latter  show  a  uniform 
and  progressive  influence  increasing  as  the  amount  of  rainfall  in¬ 
creased?  How,  then,  does  it  happen  that  a  decrease  in  run-off  of  43 
per  cent  is  shown  for  rains  of  intensity  1  inch  to  1.5  inches,  while  in 
the  next  higher  grade  of  intensity,  viz,  1.5  to  2  inches,  an  increase 
of  80  per  cent  is  shown ?  In  the  next  higher  grade,  viz,  2  to  2.5  inches, 
the  increase  drops  to  4  per  cent.  These  results  founded,  in  my  judg¬ 
ment,  on  incorrect  premises,  are  both  inconsistent  and  meaningless. 
To  “divide  the  number  of  flood  days  by  the  number  of  storms”  gives 
no  valuable  quotient,  for  the  gage  readings  selected  as  floods  are 
not  floods,  but  only  moderate  stages,  and  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
actual  height  of  the  water,  and  while  the  conclusion  is  reached  that 
there  is  an  increase  in  flood  intensity  of  18.75  per  cent  in  the  Tennes¬ 
see  basin  in  the  past  twelve  years  due  to  deforestation,  no  records  or 
other  evidence  are  presented  that  there  is  not  as  much  forest  area  in 
this  basin  as  there  was  twelve  years  ago;  or  that,  if  there  is  a  decrease, 
it  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  such  a  large  increase  in  flood 
intensity. 

But — and  here  is  the  most  important  matter  in  the  consideration 
of  Mr.  Leighton’s  conclusions — no  matter  how  complete  the  data 
may  be,  or  how  fundamentally  sound  and  fair  its  collation  and  group¬ 
ing,  the  comparison,  the  one  with  the  other,  of  such  short  periods  as 
those  measured  by  only  twelve  years,  can  not  give  results  with  regard 
to  changes  in  climate  and  floods  that  will  permit  the  most  skilled  mete¬ 
orologist  or  engineer  to  draw  fundamental  conclusions  that  can  have 
any  value.  Precisely  the  same  amount  of  rain  falling  in  the  two 
periods  and  no  change  whatever  in  forest  or  cultivated  area  might 
produce  largely  differing  results  on  floods,  depending  on  the  sequence 
with  which  it  fell  over  the  different  tributaries  and  how  it  was  con¬ 
centrated  or  scattered,  and  on  many  other  complicated  conditions 
of  run-off,  such  as  the  coinciding  of  the  flood  volume  from  one  tribu¬ 
tary  with  that  of  another,  instead  of  each  passing  down  the  main 
stream  at  different  times. 

There  is  also  the  difficulty  of  securing  accurate  precipitation  data. 
Whenever  the  height  of  the  gage  is  altered  or  other  change  made 
in  its  environment  that  disturbs  the  flow  of  the  air  currents  the  read¬ 
ings  of  one  period  may  not  fairly  be  compared  the  one  with  the  other. 
These  defects  vitiate  the  precipitation  data  of  many  stations  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  especially  those  in  large  and  growing  cities,  and 
can  only  be  remedied  by  the  Government  controlling  for  a  long  period 
of  years  an  area  at  each  station  so  large  that  it  can  determine  the 
exposure  and  keep  it  constant. 

Another  way  of  comparing  the  precipitation  and  the  river  stages  oj 
the  Tennessee  basins. — I  give  in  the  following  table  the  rainfall  at 
Chattanooga  and  Knoxville  separately  for  the  months  December  to 
May,  inclusive,  for  each  of  the  twenty -four  years,  considered  in 
Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234;  also  the  total  number  of  days  of  river 
stages  of  20  feet  and  above  on  the  Chattanooga  gage.  The  rainfall 
so  tabulated  includes  only  the  heavy  rains,  and  the  arrangement 
according  to  intensity  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  followed  in  W  ater- 
Supply  Paper  “No.  234. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  29 

Heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga  and  Knoxville ,  Tenn.,  during  six  months  of  each  year 

(December,  1883 ,  to  May ,  1907). 


December-May,  1883-1907. 

1  to  1.5  inches. 

1.5  to  2  inches. 

2  to  2.5  inches. 

2.5  to  3  inches. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

First  half: 

Chattanooga . 

Knoxville . 

Total . 

Mean . 

57 

44 

68.65 

51.01 

16 

26 

27.54 

45.59 

8 

13 

17.83 
29.  44 

13 

4 

35.67 

11.04 

101 

119.66 

42 

73.13  j  21 

47.27 

17 

46. 71 

Second  half: 

Chattanooga . 

Knoxville . 

Total . 

Mean . 

52 

48 

62.  48 
55.87 

11 

21 

18.18 

35.47 

12 

10 

26. 28 
22.19 

9 

10 

24. 13 
27.48 

100 

118. 35 

32 

53.65 

22 

48.  47 

19- 

51.61 

December-May, 

1883-1907. 

3  to  3.5  inches. 

3.5  to  4  inches. 

4  to  4.5  inches. 

4.5  -f  inches. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Grand 

total. 

First  half: 

Chattanooga. . . . 
Knoxville . 

Total . 

Mean . 

4 

4 

13. 45 
12. 70 

4 

1 

15.07 

3.78 

2 

2 

8. 58 
8.  79 

•  6 

4 

33. 43 
22.04 

220. 22 
184. 39 

8 

26. 15 

5 

18. 85 

4 

17.37 

10 

55.47 

404. 61 
202. 30 

Second  half: 

Chattanooga. . . 
Knoxville . 

Total . 

Mean . 

4 

5 

13.41 

16.17 

2 

2 

7.71 

7.46 

2 

8. 38 

4 

23.27 

183.84 
164. 64 

9 

29.58 

4 

15.17 

2 

8. 38 

4 

23. 27 

348. 48 
174. 24 

The  data  of  the  above  table  have  been  divided  into  two  periods  of 
twelve  years  each,  with  the  following  results: 


First  period. 


Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga 
Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Knoxville... 


110 

100 


Total 


210 


Total  amount  of  the  above  heavy  rains  as  per  table,  404.61  inches. 

Dividing  this  total  by  two,  to  get  the  approximate  average  of  the  heavy  rains  for 
the  watershed,  we  get  202.30  inches.  °  y  or 

Total  number  of  days  with  stages  of  20  feet  or  more  at  Chattanooga .  166 

Dividing  the  amount  of  the  heavy  rains  in  the  watershed  by  the  number  of  days 

with  a  river  stage  of  20  feet  or  over,  we  get 1.220  inches  as  the  amount  of  rain- 

,  lbb 

fall  that  probably  produced  one  day  of  a  stage  of  water  in  the  river  of  20  feet  or  more. 


30  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

Second  'period. 


Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga .  96 

Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Knoxville .  96 

Total .  192 

Total  amount  of  the  above  heavy  rains,  348.48  inches. 

Dividing  this  total  as  before,  we  get  as  an  approximate  average  of  the  heavy  rains 
in  the  watershed  174.24  inches. 

Total  number  of  days  with  stages  of  20  feet  or  over  in  the  river .  141 


Dividing  as  before,  we  get  as  the  probable  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  second  period 
required  to  produce  a  day  of  20  feet  or  over  in  the  river,  1.236  inches,  as  against  1.220 
inches  in  the  first  period. 

The  difference  between  the  line  of  reasoning  employed  in  getting 
the  above  results  and  those  given  in  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234  is 
that  the  author  of  the  latter  attempts  to  differentiate  between  the 
stages  produced  by  rains  of  varying  intensity  and  to  assign  to  such 
rains  a  given  number  of  so-called  “  flood  days,”  while  in  this  paper  the 
assertion  is  made  that  in  the  first  period  there  were  a  given  number 
of  days  with  a  stage  of  20  feet  and  over  in  the  river,  and  that  during 
that  time  the  heavy  or  flood-producing  rains  amounted  to  so  much. 
Dividing,  then,  the  total  of  the  flood-producing  rains  by  the  corre¬ 
sponding  number  of  days  with  a  stage  of  20  feet  or  over,  the  results 
given  above  are  reached,  viz,  that  for  the  first  period  it  took  1.22 
inches  of  rainfall  to  produce  a  day  with  a  20-foot  stage  in  the  river. 
These  figures  contradict  the  contention  that  an  equal  depth  of  rain 
in  the  last  period  as  compared  with  the  first  produced  more  severe 
floods  in  the  river.  I  only  present  them  to  show  how  easy  it  is  to 
arrange  data  so  as  to  prove  both  sides  to  a  question.  While  this 
line  of  inquiry  is  open  to  less  objection  than  that  followed  by  Leigh¬ 
ton,  it  does  conform  to  the  plan  of  the  latter  in  so  far  as  it  uses  the 
number  of  days  that  the  river  stood  at  or  above  20  feet,  instead  of 
taking  into  consideration  the  actual  height  of  the  water.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  is  that  this  form  of  inquiry  shows  no  increase  in 
flood  intensity.  ‘ 

Rainfall  and  run-off  of  the  Ohio  Basin. — We  now  come  to  a  different 
and  more  reliable  form  of  investigating  this  question  of  the  relation 
of  precipitation  to  run-off. 

We  have  no  direct  method  of  measuring  the  run-off,  but  we  can 
reach  a  fair  approximation  to  it  by  a  comparison  of  the  rainfall  and 
river  data  for  any  given  watershed.  If,  for  example,  the  surface 
conditions  over  any  considerable  part  of  a  watershed  have  been 
materially  changed  by  deforestation  or  other  means,  and  if,  as 
claimed,  such  change  operates  to  increase  the  run-off,  then  the  flow  of 
water  in  the  streams  alter  the  change  has  been  brought  about  should 
be  greater  for  equal  depth  of  precipitation.  This  method  is  a  rough 
one,  to  be  sure,  but  it  appears  to  be  the  only  one  permitted  by  the 
records  as  they  exist. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  has  been  chosen  as  the  point  whose  river  observa¬ 
tions  are  best  adapted  to  our  purpose,  although  some  objection  to 
that  place  lies  in  the  constriction  or  the  natural  river  channel  caused 
by  the  encroachment  on  the  banks  of  the  stream  by  various  artificial 
structures.  The  station  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  is  better  situated  for 
comparative  purposes,  but  the  low-water  stages  at  that  place  of 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  31 

kte  years  have  been  vitiated  by  the  construction  of  the  Davis 
Island  datn.  The  construction  of  dams  at  several  places  in  other 
rivers  has  lowered  the  value  of  lowriver  gauge  readings  for  comparative 
purposes.  r 

In  the  tables  which  follow  I  have  given  the  actual  mean  monthly 
stage  ot  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati  for  every  month  of  the  period  1871 
t°  The  average  of  these  monthly  means  has  been  computed 

tor  the  hrst  period  of  nineteen  years;  these  averages  have  been 
summed  up  for  the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  and  that  sum  has 
been  divided  by  twelve  m  order  to  get  the  annual  mean.  The  number 
so  obtained,.  17.3  feet,  is  therefore  the  average  stage  of  the  river  for 
the  entire  nineteen  years,  as  computed  from  all  of  the  daily  stages 
tor  that  period..  In  like  manner  the  average  stage  of  the  river  for 

the  second  period  of  years  has  been  computed  and  is  given  in  the 
following  table : 

r 

Mean  monthly  and  annual  river  stages  in  the  Ohio  River  at  Cincinnati ,  Ohio  for  the 

period  1871-1908.  ’ 


[In  feet  and  tenths.] 


Year. 


1871  . 

1872  . 

1873  . 

1874  . 

1875  . 

1876  . 

1877  . 

1878  . 

1879  . 

1880  . 

1881 . 

1882 . 

1883  . 

1884  . 

1885  . 

1886  . 

1887  . 

1888  . 

1889  . 

1890  . 

1891  . 

1892  . 

1893  . 

1894  . 

1895  . 

1896  . 

1897  . . 

1898  . . 

1899  . . 

1900  . 

1901  . 

1902  . 

1903  . 

1904  . 

1905  . 

1906  . 

1907  . 

1908  . 

Mean: 

1871-1889 

1890-1908 

1871-1908 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Annual. 

23.1 

25.3 

16.5 

21.8 

8.2 

7.1 

5.1 

5.4 

3.2 

6.5 

7.3 

oo  a 

14.  1 

13. 3 

25.  8 

11. 8 

10.9 

11.9 

8.4 

5.1 

4.2 

10.0 

10.5 

zy.  4 

21.  4 

29. 2 

25.  b 

9.2 

13.3 

10.0 

6.6 

7.3 

15.  6 

28  6 

ICO 

27.9 

25.7 

31.6 

20.7 

7.8 

6.1 

9.0 

4.2 

5.4 

4.6 

13.4 

01  A 

lb.  7 

o4.  4 

23.  9 

14. 7 

11.8 

25.0 

26.7 

5.1 

7.4 

15.9 

24.3 

OQ  1 

oo.  y 

2o.  b 

25.  4 

18.2 

10. 1 

11.8 

10.6 

16.8 

10.7 

11.7 

12.1 

OA  A 

lo.  4 

28.  0 

23. 1 

17.  4 

12. 1 

11.3 

5.5 

6.2 

5.1 

12.1 

15.1 

oo  9 

Z4.  Z 

24.  2 

14.  5 

22.0 

12.5 

9.0 

10.6 

13.7 

6.0 

14.8 

29.1 

90  O 

Zb.  b 

32.  8 

22.  9 

11.  4 

7.1 

5.6 

9.9 

6.9 

3.2 

5.4 

19.2 

.  zy.  Z 

Zo.  o 

o5.  Z 

24.  6 

15.  8 

14.0 

9.4 

8.4 

7.0 

4.6 

10.4 

18.1 

-  ZU.  { 
AO  A 

oo.  1 

27.  2 

29.  4 

16. 1 

16.  5 

7.8 

4.9 

3.6 

4.4 

14.8 

25.0 

1  O  1 

44.  U 

34.  2 

18.  2 

30.  6 

26.  5 

16.9 

13.7 

13.9 

9.0 

8.7 

12.7 

-  lo.  1 

4o.  b 

20.  3 

36.  0 

49.  0 

61.5 

12.9 

8.7 

4.4 

7.9 

38.0 

32.2 

.  Z4.  0 

ok  a 

54.  4 

36.  5 

24.  5 

17.  5 

11.3 

8.5 

6.5 

3.6 

3.9 

4.4 

12.2 

-  ZO.  t> 

15.  b 

17. 1 

26.  5 

15.  0 

14.7 

6.8 

12.5 

11.0 

8.5 

15.5 

18.1 

.  Z4. 7 

Zb.  0 

20.  6 

37.  4 

22.0 

15.5 

13.8 

10.0 

5.4 

5.2 

12.2 

19.4 

ZU.  4 
OA  o 

48.  4 

29.  4 

24.  0 

20.6 

14.8 

5.7 

4.9 

3.3 

3.3 

3.6 

6.1 

ZU.  Z 

ZO.  1 

23.  0 

23.  8 

13.8 

10.4 

14.6 

12.1 

16.4 

17.9 

27.4 

16.2 

Zo.  z 

OO  A 

Z4.  1 

20.  9 

19.  0 

16.0 

25.2 

18.5 

12.2 

6.7 

8.0 

24.6 

23.9 

oo.  U 
Ol  Q 

o7.  y 

4b.  0 

31.  / 

32.  5 

19.8 

10.8 

9.7 

20.8 

21.2 

24.2 

17.3 

Ol.  O 
OO  O 

4b.  8 

37. 2 

30.  6 

9.  8 

18.9 

13.0 

11.2 

9.7 

4.9 

9.6 

18.9 

Zo.  o 

Z4.  5 

25.  4 

31.  5 

25.  2 

23.1 

11.6 

7.7 

5.7 

4.3 

6.4 

11.1 

1Z.  i 

41.  1 

25.  8 

26.  8 

36. 1 

14.9 

8.3 

4.8 

7.2 

10.5 

9.5 

16.5 

li.o 

Z7.  Z 

22.  6 

19. 1 

16.  9 

12.3 

5.6 

4.3 

4.8 

4.6 

6.6 

12.0 

Zo.  o 

lo.  9 

27.  4 

24.  4 

12.3 

6.5 

7.5 

6.1 

4.9 

3.0 

3.4 

9.  4 

14.  I 

Zo.  b 

22.  5 

26. 1 

12.3 

11.7 

22.1 

20.1 

6.7 

14.8 

13.8 

19.7 

14.  4 

35.3 

ob.  o 

40.  3 

26.  3 

23.1 

12.8 

13.9 

10.3 

4.8 

3.5 

8.0 

17.8 

Z5.  0 

31. 3 

27. 1 

23.7 

11.7 

8.6 

20.2 

7.7 

10. 1 

17. 1 

18  7 

31. 8 

25.9 

40. 1 

26.7 

17.4 

13.6 

8.4 

8.0 

5.1 

3.9 

6.  4 

13  4 

18.  7 

24.  5 

28.9 

17.8 

11.2 

10.8 

9.5 

7.9 

5.0 

4.3 

10.3 

19  2 

15.  8 

13.8 

22.2 

39.5 

25.5 

28.1 

13.1 

9.6 

10.9 

6.  4 

5.6 

20  6 

19.  9 

19.2 

37.2 

26.7 

13.6 

11.0 

19.4 

9.9 

4.4 

7.6 

6.3 

26  9 

23. 1 
19.4 

39.7 

42.5 

32.9 

12.0 

13.5 

12.7 

6.7 

8.2 

6.6 

7.3 

9.6 

Z0.  o 

34.  6 

26.  6 

20. 1 

16.2 

13.5 

6.3 

5.0 

3.8 

4.2 

4  6 

14.  9 

21.4 

33.3 

19.7 

25.2 

16.3 

15.8 

12.9 

10.2 

10.8 

12.0 

25  6 

26.8 

13. 9 

26.3 

30.3 

14.3 

12.5 

10.1 

14.4 

10.1 

13.3 

15.8 

23  3 

45.  7 

99  A 

22.0 

40.1 

23.9 

22.5 

27.2 

18.3 

13.5 

12.1 

10.6 

17.0 

19.4 

ZZ.  U 

oZ.  Z 

41. 9 

35. 8 

30.8 

12.9 

10.0 

8.6 

4.4 

3.6 

4.8 

5.2 

23.8 

29.3 

26.1 

25.1 

20.0 

15.8 

11.4 

10.0 

7.6 

6.6 

13.5 

18  1 

17  3 

23.  6 

26.8 

32.9 

27.6 

20.2 

15.5 

12.2 

10.1 

7.8 

7.8 

9.9 

16  3 

17  fi 

23. 7 

28. 1 

29.5 

26.3 

20.1 

15.6 

11.8 

10.0 

7.7 

7.2 

11.7 

17.2 

17.4 

The  average  precipitation  for  the  watershed  has  not  been  so  easily 
obtained.  Only  m  exceptional  cases  are  continuous  measurements  of 
precipitation  available  for  comparative  studies.  The  government 
records  m  large  cities  are  of  necessity  made  from  gauges  whose  imme- 


32  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


cliate  environment  has  been  changed  repeatedly  in  the  course  of  a  long 
series  of  years,  and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  rain-gauge  records 
from  Cincinnati  and  Pittsburg  were  ignored.  The  points  selected— 
viz,  North  Lewisburg  and  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  and  Confluence  and 
Franklin,  Pa —are  the  best  and  practically  the  only  long-period  rec¬ 
ords  available  in  this  watershed.  A  better  distribution  throughout 
the  watershed  would  have  been  preferred,  but  it  is  not  possible  to 
obtain  it.  The  precipitation,  like  the  river  stages,  has  been  computed 
in  periods  of  nineteen  years  each.  The  tables  follow: 


Annual  precipitation  in  the  Ohio  watershed  for  the  period  1871  to  1908,  inclusive. 

[In  inches  and  tenths.] 


Year. 


1871  . 

1872  . 

1873  . 

1874  . 

1875  . 

1876  . 

1877  . 

1878  . 

1879  . . 

1880  . 

1881 . . 

1882 . 

1883  . . 

1884  . . 

1885  . . 

1886  . . 

1887  . . 

1888  . . 

1889  . . 

1890  . . 

1891  . 

1892  . 

1893  . 

1894  . 

1895  . 

1896  . 

1897  . 

1898  . 

1899  . 

1900  . 

1901  . 

1902  . 

1903  . 

1904  . 

1905  . 

1906  . 

1907  . 

1908  . 

Mean: 

1871-1889 . 

1890-1908 . 

Mean  for  entire  period 


North  Lew¬ 
isburg, 
Ohio. 

Ports¬ 

mouth, 

Ohio. 

Confluence, 

Pa. 

Franklin, 

Pa. 

For  the 
watershed. 

30.6 

30.7 

a  27.  7 

34  7 

28.6 

31. 1 

a  31.0 

41.5 

37.2 

46.2 

a  41.  4 

54  9 

34.0 

38.3 

a  39.  4 

47.4 

43.2 

45.7 

39.1 

45.8 

42.0 

41.2 

46.4 

46.9 

37.3 

35.0 

45.0 

43.5 

44.0 

29.9 

41.1 

40.1 

48.4 

35.6 

38.8 

37.7 

46.4 

49.0 

49.2 

34  0 

44.0 

40.8 

41.4 

39.1 

45.8 

56.2 

55.1 

45.8 

48.9 

48.5 

49.8 

41.3 

34.3 

42.3 

42.1 

42.0 

38.8 

37.3 

39.3 

446 

40.6 

45.3 

441 

38.8 

35.0 

40.7 

b  31.  2 

40.8 

47.6 

48.3 

b  47.  3 

49.2 

30.8 

39.3 

40.0 

43.8 

45.2 

57.6 

60. 1 

58.5 

44.2 

42.8 

57.5 

c51.  4 

40.2 

44  1 

38.4 

C47.6  | . m 

49.1 

37.9 

43.4 

c48.  7- . A 

39.6 

36.2 

42.1 

C43.3 

29.0 

31.2 

35.1 

c  33.  5 

48.3 

39.9 

50.2 

c  41.  2 

43.5 

49.1 

45.8 

39.6 

52.2 

48. 1 

53.2 

39. 1 

34.0 

42.9 

48.9 

32.8 

32.5 

34.6 

44.0 

31.7 

29.6 

39.7 

41.2 

42.2 

36.6 

37.2 

45.9 

39.1 

28.  7 

37.3 

38.3 

45.6 

35.4 

29.2 

31.4 

40.8 

d  35. 1 

43.3 

51.1 

45. 1 

d  33.7 

44.4 

48.7 

<40.2 

d  37.  6 

42.3 

55.8 

<42.3 

30.1 

40.0 

42.1 

<41.1 

39.8 

41. 1 

41.5 

42.7 

41.3 

38.1 

40.9 

46.0 

42.3 

41.8 

39.0 

41.0 

43.8 

42.5 

41.6 

a  Record  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.  d  Record  of  Columbus,  Ohio. 

b  Record  of  Lock  No.  4,  Pennsylvania.  «  Record  of  Parkers,  1  a. 

c  Record  of  Warren,  Pa. 


Summarizing  the  above,  we  have: 

Average  stage  of  the  Ohio  River  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio: 

1871  to  1889 . 

1890  to  1908 . 

Average  precipitation  in  the  Ohio  watershed,  as  determined  from  the  stations  above  named. 

1871  to  1889 . 

1890  to  1908 . 


Feet. 
...  17.3 
...  17.5 

Inches. 
...  41.3 
...  41.8 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  33 

\ 

I  consider  that  the  results  secured  from  the  discussion  of  the 
precipitation  and  the  gauge  readings  in  the  Ohio  basin,  as  given  in  the 
foregoing  tables,  form  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  made 
by  this  paper.  Here  we  have  avoided  the  using  of  indefinite  and 
meaningless  data,  and  have  taken  the  longest  period  of  time  for 
which  accurate  records  can  be  secured  on  a  watershed  that  is  suitable 
for  this  line  of  inquiry.  We  have  not  simply  counted  the  number  of 
days  that  the  river  stood  above  some  .arbitrarily  selected  stage  with¬ 
out  taking  into  consideration  the  exact  height  of  the  river.  Neither 
have  we  divided  the  gauge  readings  by  some  arbitrarily  selected 
portion  of  precipitation  data.  On  the  contrary,  we  have  endeavored 
to  profit  by  the  errors  of  previous  investigations,  and  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  an  inquiry  that  would  mean  something  when  we  reached 
the  end  of  our  computations.  For  this  reason  we  have  selected  a 
typical  station  on  the  main  stream  that  drains  the  Ohio  Basin  and 
have  discussed  rainfall  data  that  are  the  most  accurate  of  any  in  the 
region,  having  been  subject  to  less  errors  due  to  varying  environ¬ 
ments.  Any  deductions  made  from  an  inquiry  founded  with  less 
care,  or  from  data  of  a  less  degree  of  accuracy,  must  bring  results 
from  which  it  would  be  unsafe  to  form  definite  conclusions. 

Now  let  us  see  what  is  the  result.  The  average  stage  of  the  river 
for  the  first  nineteen  years  is  17.3  feet,  and  for  the  last  nineteen 
years  17.5  feet,  showing  that  there  is  practically  no  change  in  the 
run-off  of  the  Ohio  Basin  between  the  first  period  and  the  last. 
When  we  examine  the  average  precipitation  over  the  watershed  that 
is  drained  by  this  river  we  find  that  for  the  first  nineteen  years  it  was 
41.3  inches,  and  for  the  last  nineteen-year  period  it  was  41.8  inches, 
a  slight  increase  in  precipitation  for  the  latter  period  that  agrees 
precisely  with  the  slightly  greater  average  flow  of  water.  There  is  a 
perfect  agreement  here  between  the  precipitation  and  the  flow  of 
the  stream.  I  do  not  know  what  has  been  the  area  deforested  in 
this  valley  during  the  thirty-eight  years  under  discussion,  but  whatever 
it  is  it  seems  to  be  apparent  that  such  altering  of  the  relation  of  forest 
area  to  cultivated  area  has  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  flow  of  the 
Ohio  River.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  by  the  studying  of  short 
periods  of  data  on  small  tributary  streams,  and  especially  by  the 
grouping  of  data  dissimilar  from  what  is  employed  in  this  discussion, 
all  manner  of  results  may  be  shown. 

I  believe  that  the  reader  will  acknowledge  that  I  have  shown  in  the 
several  'preceding  paragraphs  that  the  average  discharge  of  the  Ohio 
River,  where  I  presume  deforestation  has  been  as  great  as  in  any  other 
pdrt  of  the  country  during  recent  time,  has  not  changed  for  a  period  of 
thirty-eight  years,  except  as  caused  by  precipitation.  It  will  now  be  inter¬ 
esting  to  know  how  the  two  periods  compare  with  regard  to  extremely  high 

water  and  extremely  low  water,  and  this  will  be  discussed  in  the  coming 
pages. 

High  water  and  low  water  on  the  rivers  of  the  Ohio  basin. — I  had  Prof. 
H.  C.  Frankenfield,  Chief  of  the  River  and  Flood  Division  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  compile  the  data  from  one  station  on  the  Cumber¬ 
land,  three  on  the  Tennessee,  and  five  on  the  Ohio,  and  establish  the 
average  high  water  for  the  four  wet  months,  January  to  April,  and  the 
average  low  water  for  the  four  dry  months,  July  to  October.  He  then 
26320—10 - 3 


34  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


took  the  departure  from  the  normal,  both  for  the  precipitation  and  for 
the  height  of  the  rivers,  and  found  that  the  average  high  water  was  no 
higher  and  the  average  low  water  was  no  lower  for  the  last  half  of  the 
period  than  for  the  first  half.  The  differences  were  so  slight  as  to  be 
inappreciable,  but  what  changes  occurred  were  in  favor  of  the  low 
water  being  slightly  higher  and  the  flood  waters  slightly  less.  There 
were  variations  in  the  periods  and  intensities  of  floods  that  bear  a 
direct  and  proper  relation  to  the  precipitation.  In  making  his 
report,  Professor  Frankenfield  points  to  the  fact  that  the  low- water 
stages  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  Nashville,  Tenn.,  are  not  fairly  com¬ 
parable  with  those  of  the  other  stations  on  account  of  permanent 
pool  stages  caused  by  dams  operated  during  the  low-water  season 
ror  purposes  of  navigation.  The  first  dam  below  Pittsburg  was 
placed  in  operation  in  1885,  and  that  at  Nashville  in  1904.  The 
effect  of  these  dams  is  to  furnish  higher  low-water  stages  than  would 
result  without  them.  The  effect  upon  the  normal  low-water  stage 
at  Nashville  was  not  marked,  but  at  Pittsburg  it  was  perceptible. 
However,  in  his  conclusions  he  did  not  make  allowance  for  the 
slightly  higher  low-water  stages  at  Pittsburg  on  account  of  the  dam, 
but  when  included  with  the  other  stages  of  the  river  this  defect 
probably  is  not  apparent. 

According  to  our  line  of  reasoning,  which  we  believe  to  be  fair  and 
conservative,  it  is  shown  that  the  average  discharge  of  the  Ohio 
River  is  not  greater  as  the  result  of  deforestation  during  the  last 
nineteen  years  than  during  the  preceding  like  period,  and  that  the 
average  high  water  in  the  rivers  of  the  entire  basin,  which  includes 
the  Tennessee,  the  Cumberland,  and  the  Ohio,  is  not  higher  and  the 
low  water  is  not  lower. 

Are  real  flood  stages  more  numerous  than  formerly? — The  next  line 
of  inquiry  will  be  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  or  not 
there  has  been  in  recent  time  an  increase  in  the  number  of  days 
that  these  rivers  were  at  or  above  the  flood  stage,  and  in  making  this 
inquiry  exact  flood  stages  will  be  used,  not  simply  gauge  readings  less 
than  flood.  Again  I  called  on  Professor  Frankenfield  to  prepare  the 
necessary  data.  As  the  data  was  not  complete  with  regard  to  flood 
stages  for  the  first  ten  years  of  the  period  that  we  have  been  dis¬ 
cussing,  he  took  a  period  of  ten  years  less  in  length,  beginning  with 
1879,  and  as  the  result  of  his  computations  we  have  the  following 
table 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  35 


Number  of  days  in  each  year  that  the  rivers  were  at  or  above  the  flood  stage. 

[Flood  stage  given  with  name  of  station.] 


> 

Cum¬ 

ber¬ 

land 

River, 

Nash¬ 

ville, 

Term. 

Tennessee  River. 

Ohio  River. 

Total. 

Chatta¬ 

nooga, 

Tenn. 

Flor¬ 

ence, 

Ala. 

John¬ 

son¬ 

ville, 

Tenn. 

Pitts¬ 

burg, 

Pa. 

Cincin¬ 

nati, 

Ohio. 

Louis¬ 

ville, 

Ky. 

Evans¬ 

ville, 

Ind. 

Cairo, 

Ill. 

Flood  stage  in 

feet . 

40 

33 

16 

21 

22 

50 

28 

35 

45 

Year. 

1879 . 

3 

3 

10 

a  19 

4 

1880 . 

19 

4 

19 

a  51 

4 

4 

31 

1881 . 

4 

( b ) 

3 

2 

11 

6 

1882 . 

30 

9 

44 

80 

9 

8 

63 

56 

1883 . 

6 

4 

15 

a  73 

2 

16 

15 

0  34 

21 

1884 . 

25 

12 

42 

a  91 

3 

19 

19 

li 

40 

1885 . 

10 

20 

1 

5 

1886 . 

14 

11 

17 

31 

1 

12 

11 

19 

21 

1887 . 

11 

10 

44 

13 

11 

53 

32 

1888 . 

13 

27 

3 

5 

1889 . 

8 

12 

1890 . 

14 

5 

16 

55 

2 

14 

17 

65 

3Q 

1891 . 

15 

9 

35 

63 

4 

8 

6 

67 

13 

1892 . 

5 

18 

40 

1 

8 

30 

1893 . 

3 

1 

17 

44 

2 

.  10 

2 

28 

18 

1894 . 

3 

2 

14 

1 

1895 . 

4 

15 

1 

3 

1896 . 

6 

4 

7 

18 

6 

1897 . 

16 

9 

29 

48 

2 

8 

7 

36 

48 

1898 . 

20 

3 

15 

15 

37 

17 

1899 . 

2 

13 

26 

66 

1 

9 

5 

39 

26 

1900 . 

4 

18 

1 

1901 . 

1 

17 

42 

3 

9 

7 

12 

1902 . 

12 

6 

30 

50 

3 

4 

26 

1903 . 

1 

31 

58 

3 

8 

1 

45 

25 

1904 . 

3 

9 

4 

19 

15 

1905 . 

3 

13 

5 

4 

1906 . 

1 

22 

1 

11 

12 

1907 . 

24 

4 

22 

22 

46 

23 

1908 . 

3 

18 

3 

12 

5 

57 

11 

Total,  1879-1893..... 

140 

63 

278 

650 

19 

107 

93 

442 

281 

2,073 

Total,  1894-1908 . 

40 

34 

159 

435 

34 

88 

62 

341 

177 

li  370 

Grand  total . . . 

180 

97 

437 

1,085 

53 

195 

155 

783 

458 

3,443 

°  Data  incomplete. 


b  Data  missing  for  this  year. 


Total  1879-1893 
Total  1894-1908, 


Days. 

2,073 

1,370 


Excess  of  first  period  over  second  period 


703 


Average  per  year,  1879-1893  .  138  2 

Average  per  year,  1894-1908  . ‘  ”  "  ”  91.'  3 


Excess  per  year  first  period  over  second  period 


46.9 


From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  fourteen  years 
there  were  2,073  days  that  the  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville;  the 
Ohio  at  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Evansville,  and  Cairo;  the 
Tennessee  at  Chattanooga,  Florence,  and  Johnsonville,  were  at  the 
flood  stage — that  is,  they  were  bank  full  or  overflowing.  During  the 
last  fourteen  years  the  number  of  such  days  is  1,370,  an  excess  in 
the  first  fourteen  years  of  703  days,  or  an  average  of  46.9  days  ex¬ 
cess  per  year  in  the  first  period  over  the  second. 

Now,  I  would  guard  against  unsafe  conclusions  from  these  results. 
The  fact  is  that  abnormally  heavy  precipitation  for  several  years  in 


36  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


the  forepart  of  the  first  fourteen-year  period,  especially  that  which 
caused  the  famous  1882  flood,  places  such  a  preponderance  of  flood 
days  in  the  first  period  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  claim  that  there  has 
been  any  such  permanent  decrease  in  flood  intensity  as  is  shown  by 
this  table.  It  is  given  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  further  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  conclusions  on  which  fundamental  theories  or  policies 
are  based  should  not  be  founded  upon  short-period  data.  While  I 
am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  no  permanent  increase  in  the 
number  of  flood  days  for  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole, 
between  the  last  fifty  years  and  the  preceding  fifty  years,  I  should 
not  rely  upon  such  short-period  data  as  is  contained  in  this  table 
to  sustain  my  belief.  But  if  these  data  of  twenty-eight  years,  which 
shows  such  a  marked  decrease  in  flood  intensity  of  the  rivers  of  the 
Ohio  Valley,  and  which  are  founded  upon  unquestionably  accurate 
data,  are  not  sufficient  evidence  for  a  scientific  man  to  claim  statistical 
proof  of  the  decrease  of  floods,  what  shall  one  say  of  the  statements 
made  by  Messrs.  Hall  and  Maxwell,  of  the  Forest  Service,  in  volume 
2,  Senate  Document  No.  676,  in  a  paper  on  “Surface  conditions  and 
stream  flow,”  which  begins  at  page  112,  as  follows: 

THE  TENDENCY  IS  TOWARD  INCREASED  FLOODS. 

On  the  Potomac  River,  for  which  measurements  are  given  for  eighteen  years,  the 
number  of  floods  during  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  19;  during  the  second  half,  26; 
while  the  number  of  days  of  flood  in  the  first  half  was  33,  and  in  the  second  half,  57. 

On  the  Monongahela  River  measurements  are  given  for  twenty-two  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  30  floods;  during  the  second  half,  52.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  55;  during  the  second  half,  100. 

On  the  Ohio  River  measurements  are  given  for  twenty-six  years.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  period  there  were  46  floods;  during  the  second  half,  59.  The  number  of 
days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  143;  during  the  second  half,  188. 

On  the  Cumberland  River  measurements  were  given  for  eighteen  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  32  floods;  during  the  second  half,  43.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  89;  during  the  second  half,  102. 

On  the  Wateree  River  measurements  have  gone  on  for  sixteen  years.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  period  the  number  of  floods  was  46;  in  the  second  half,  70.  The  number  of 
days  of  flood  in  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  147;  in  the  last  half,  187. 

On  the  Savannah  River  measurements  have  continued  for  eighteen  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  the  number  of  floods  was  47;  during  the  second  half,  58. 
The  number  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  period  was  116 ;  during  the  second  half,  170. 

On  the  Allegheny  River  measurements  are  given  for  thirty-four  years.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  period  there  were  39  floods;  during  the  second  half,  53.  The  number 
of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  92;  during  the  second  half,  131. 

On  the  Tennessee  River  measurements  have  been  taken  for  thirty-four  years.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  32  floods;  during  the  second  half,  33.  The 
number  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  173;  during  the  second  half  (in  this 
case  there  was  a  falling-off),  137. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  the  authors  are,  in  my  judgment, 
faulty,  because: 

First.  The  shortness  of  the  period  of  observations  at  the  majority 
of  the  stations  discussed. 

Second.  The  arbitrary  assumption  as  flood  stages  of  certain  heights 
of  water  much  below  that  necessary  to  cause  a  flood. 

As  to  the  period  of  observations:  Those  of  us  who  are  accustomed 
to  the  computation  of  normals  or  mean  values  have  always  realized 
how  little  value  they  possess  unless  obtained  from  data  covering  a 
long  period  of  years.  This  is  true  of  temperature  normals,  which 
vary  but  little  from  year  to  year.  How  much  more  must  it  be  true 
of  precipitation  and  river-stage  data,  with  their  wide  extremes  and 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  37 


irregular  fluctuations?  As  a  matter  of  fact  any  average  of  river  con¬ 
ditions,  or  any  mean  annual  precipitation  determined  from  ten  or 
fifteen  years’  observations,  would  be  of  little  or  no  value  in  a  discus¬ 
sion  of  this  character,  and  when  two  of  these  short-period  normals 
are  compared  with  each  other  the  actual  errors  would  probably  be 
multiplied. 

Second,  opinions  may  differ,  of  course,  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
flood,  but  the  Weather  Bureau  (and  engineers  generally)  have  uni¬ 
formly  defined  a  river  to  be  in  flood  when  it  reached  a  stage  above 
which  damage  would  be  caused,  practically  the  bank-full  stage.  This 
being  so,  it  would  appear  reasonable  and  proper  that  this  definition 
of  the  term  should  be  accepted  and  data  discussed  accordingly.  If 
the  flood  stage  at  a  given  point  is  18  feet,  an  assumption  of  a  lower 
or  a  higher  figure  for  purposes  of  investigating  the  frequency  of  floods 
must  necessarily  be  misleading. 

I  will  now  take  up  the  rivers  in  the  order  named  in  the  quotation 
and  give  the  net  result  of  Professor  Frankenfield’s  inquiry  as  to  the 
number  of  real  floods: 

Potomac. — On  the  Potomac  River  the  number  of  floods  has  not 
increased,  but  there  were  more  days  of  a  12-foot  stage  in  the  last 
period  than  in  the  first.  The  explanation  of  this  increase  is  found  in 
the  precipitation. 

Monongahela. — On  the  Monongahela  River,  using  data  for  Lock 
No.  4,  Pennsylvania,  40  miles  above  Pittsburg,  there  were  two  more 
floods  in  the  second  period  as  compared  with  the  first,  the  figures 
being  13  and  11,  respectively.  Two  of  the  days  of  flood  occurred  in 
March,  1907,  as  a  result  of  abnormal  weather  conditions  over  the 
watershed. 

Ohio  at  Wheeling  — There  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  floods 
at  Wheeling,  but  said  increase  is  not  shown  farther  down  the  river 
than  Parkersburg.  It  (the  increase)  disappeared  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  as  indicated  by  the  Cincinnati  records.  The 
reason  ascribed  for  this  increase  in  flood  frequency  is  an  increase  in 
short-period  heavy  rains.  The  same  conditions  appear  to  have 
obtained  in  the  Allegheny  at  Freeport. 

Cumberland . — There  has  been  no  increase  in  flood  conditions  in  the 
Cumberland. 

Water ee. — There  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  flood  days 
on  this  river  during  the  second  period.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pre¬ 
cipitation  in  the  watershed  shows  a  like  marked  increase. 

Savannah. — The  record  for  the  Savannah  River  at  Augusta  shows 
a  marked  decrease  in  the  second  period  as  compared  with  the  first. 

Allegheny  at  Freeport. — See  Wheeling. 

Tennessee. — See  detailed  discussion  on  this  river  in  another  part  of 
this  paper. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

(1)  Any  marked  climatic  changes  that  may  have  taken  place  are 
of  wide  extent  and  not  local,  are  appreciable  only  when  measured  in 
geologic  periods,  and  evidence  is  strong  that  the  cutting  away  of  the 
forests  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  creating  or  the  augmenting  of 
droughts  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

(2)  Precipitation  controls  forestation,  but  forestation  has  little  or 
no  effect  upon  precipitation. 


38  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

(3)  Any  local  modification  of  temperature  and  humidity  caused  by 
the  presence  or  absence  of  forest  covering,  the  buildings  of  villages 
and  cities,  etc.,  could  not  extend  upward  more  than  a  few  hundred 
feet,  and  in  this  stratum  of  air  saturation  rarely  occurs,  even  during 
rainfall,  whereas  precipitation  is  the  result  of  conditions  that  exist  at 
such  altitudes  as  not  to  be  controlled  or  affected  by  the  small  thermal 
irregularities  of  the  surface  air. 

(4)  During  the  period  of  accurate  observations,  the  amount  of 
precipitation  has  not  increased  or  decreased  to  an  extent  worthy  of 
consideration. 

(5)  Floods  are  caused  by  excessive  precipitation,  and  the  source  of 
the  precipitation  over  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  United 
States  is  the  vapor  borne  by  the  warm  southerly  winds  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  ocean  into  the  interior  of  the  country, 
but  little  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

(6)  Compared  with  the  total  area  of  a  given  watershed,  that  of  the 
headwaters  is  usually  small  and,  except  locally  in  mountain  streams, 
their  run-off  would  not  be  sufficient  to  cause  floods,  even  if  deforesta¬ 
tion  allowed  a  greater  and  quicker  run-off.  Granting  for  the  sake  of 
argument  that  deforestation  might  be  responsible  for  general  floods 
over  a  watershed,  it  would  be  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  them,  to 
reforest  the  lower  levels  with  their  vastly  greater  areas,  an  impossi¬ 
bility  unless  valuable  agricultural  lands  are  to  be  abandoned  as  food- 
producing  areas. 

(7)  The  run-off  of  our  rivers  is  not  materially  affected  by  any  other 
factor  than  the  precipitation. 

(8)  The  high  waters  are  not  higher,  and  the  low  waters  are  not 
lower  than  formerly.  In  fact,  there  appears  to  be  a  tendency  in  late  • 
years  toward  a  slightly  better  low-water  flow  in  summer. 

(9)  Floods  are  not  of  greater  frequency  and  longer  duration  than 
formerly. 


o 


^iQ'qns 


COMMITTEE  ON  AGRICULTURE 
ALTGELD  HALL  STACKS  _ 

A  REPORT 

- 

ON 

“THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE 

AND  ON  FLOODS” 


BY 

WILLIS  L.  MOORE,  LL.  D.,  Sc.  D 

Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 


Note.— When  Professor  Willis  L.  Moore  was  before  the  Committee  on  Agriculture 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1909,  to  explain  the  estimates  for  the 
Weather  Bureau,  a  discussion  arose  as  to  the  influence  of  forests  on  climate 
and  on  the  run-off  of  water.  Professor  Moore  stated  that  he  was  then  mak¬ 
ing  some  studies  on  the  subject  which  might  lead  to  some  definite  conclu¬ 
sions,  and  he  was  requested  by  the  chairman  of  the  committee  to  continue 
these  studies  and  make  a  report  when  they  were  concluded.  This  has  been 
done,  and  the  report  submitted  by  Professor  Moore,  which  follows,  is  printed 
by  direction  of  the  committee. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 


(LIBRARY  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY 
OF  1  I.I.1NO  1SI 


COLLEGEOI 

IfNCi  1NEER1NGI 


Frotn  tke  lilara»-tj  of 

JOHN  AUGUSTUS 
OCKERSON 

%aii  1,1024 

bti  fils  Widow  CLARA 
SHACKBFORD  OCKERSON 


330.1 73 
PUc 
No.  10 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON 

FLOODS. 


By  Willis  L.  Moore,  LL.  D.,  Sc.  D.,  Chief  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


INTRODUCTION. 

One  of  the  most  important  problems  before  the  American  people 
to-day  is  the  protection  of  their  natural  resources  against  either  the 

freed  of  those  who  would  monopolize  them  for  their  own  individual 
enefit  or  those  who,  while  well  meaning,  would  through  ignorance 
destroy  our  heritage  and  leave  posterity  poor. 

In  the  discussion  of  matters  concerned  with  the  conservation  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  nation,  some  of  which  may  involve  the 
expenditure  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  and  the  employment 
for  years  to  come  of  thousands  of  public  officials,  a  consideration  of 
the  relation  of  forests  to  climate,  floods,  and  low  water  is  vitally 
important. 

While  much  has  been  written  on  this  subject,  but  little  of  it  has 
emanated  from  meteorologists  or  from  those  in  the  public  service 
who  have  been  actively  engaged  in  the  forecasting  of  river  stages, 
both  of  high  and  of  low  water.  In  the  prosecution  of  such  duty  these 
officials  have  become  acquainted  with  the  physical  facts  involved  in 
the  problem  and  are  therefore  well  fitted  to  speak  on  the  relation  of 
such  facts  to  stream  flow. 

THE  AUTHOR  ACKNOWLEDGES  A  CHANGE  OF  OPINION. 

It  has  frequently  been  stated  that  forests  control  the  flow  of 
streams,  both  in  high-water  stages  and  in  low-water  stages,  and  that 
the  climate  is  so  materially  affected  by  the  cutting  away  of  the 
forests  that  droughts  have  largely  increased  and  that  the  well-being 
of  future  generations  is  seriously  menaced.  It  is  my  purpose  to 
present  facts  and  figures  that  do  not  support  these  views,  some  of 
which,  especially  those  that  pertain  to  the  flow  of  streams,  were  held 
by  me  UP  1°  a  few  years  ago — until  a  careful  study  of  our  own  and 
other  records  and  of  the  incidents  of  history  caused  me  to  modify  my 
opinions.  I  shall  endeavor  not  to  be  dogmatic,  but  rather  to  present 
the  reasons  for  the  conclusions  that  I  now  entertain,  with,  so  far  as 
may  be,  statistical  and  historical  evidence  to  sustain  them.  And  I 
reserve  the  right  to  change  or  still  further  modify  my  views  if  the 
presentation  of  new  facts  and  figures  render  such  a  course  logical, 
and  do  not  consider  that  I  shall  stultify  myself  in  so  doing. 


3 


4  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


FORESTS  SHOULD  BE  PROTECTED. 

There  are  so  many  reasons  why  forests  should  be  protected  by  the 
state  and  the  nation  and  economically  conserved  in  the  interests  of 
the  whole  people  that  it  is  doing  an  injury  to  a  good  cause  to  attempt 
to  bring  to  its  support  the  false  reasoning  and  mistaken  conclusions  of 
enthusiasts,  no  matter  how  well  meaning  they  may  be  or  how  devoted 
to  high  and  lofty  purposes. 

Conservation  of  national  resources  is  national  economy,  just  as 
conservation  of  private  resources  is  personal  economy.  But  whether 
personal  economy  is  beneficial  or  harmful  to  the  individual  and  his 
children  depends  upon  the  extent  and  nature  of  that  economy;  and 
the  same  thing  is  equally  true  of  a  nation.  Conservation  that  pre¬ 
vents  the  practical  use  of  individual  or  national  resources  is  like 
unto  the  economy  of  the  timid  servant  that  hid  his  master’s  talent 
in  the  earth,  and  in  large  measure  deserves  the  same  condemnation. 

There  should  be  neither  wasteful  use  of  resources  nor  that  greatest 
waste  of  all,  total  disuse  of  them,  but  that  economical  use  which  in 
the  end  will  have  yielded  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number. 

Preservation  of  the  forests,  cutting  wisely,  but  never  more  than 
they  reproduce,  enables  us  to  draw  from  a  perpetual  supply  a  certain 
quantity  of  material  for  buildings,  for  furniture,  and  for  fuel.  But 
of  course  the  forested  land  yields  not  a  handful  of  wheat  nor  of  com 
and  makes  but  a  wretched  substitute  for  the  pasture  upon  which  to  feed 
milch  cows  and  beef  cattle.  These  conflicting  interests,  the  pleading 
of  the  poor  man’s  children  for  bread  and  meat  and  the  cry  of  the 
country  for  the  lumber  that  only  a  woodland  can  furnish  would,  if 
there  were  no  other  interests  to  modify  the  result,  somewhere  find  an 
inevitable  balance.  But  just  as  the  body  is  more  important  than 
its  raiment,  so,  too,  is  its  food  more  important  than  its  shelter;  and 
therefore  in  every  country  the  general  tendency ,  with  growth  of  popu¬ 
lation,  is  to  convert  forest  lands  into  cultivated  fields ,  and  this  tendency 
should  not  be  discouraged  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  deforestation  has 
augmented  droughts  and  floods,  and  1  believe  that  it  can  not  be  so  shown; 
1  believe  that  forests  should  be  preserved  for  themselves  alone,  or  not 
at  all. 

The  average  virgin  forest  is  wasteful  as  a  source  of  lumber  and  of 
fuel.  It  is  only  here  and  there  that  a  tree  is  found  of  proper  growth 
and  suitable  species  for  first-class  material.  As  a  lumber  producer  a 
forest  of  this  kind  is  analogous  to  a  cornfield  planted  in  scattering 
hills  here  and  yonder,  instead  of  being  cultivated  throughout  its 
extent  and  planted  with  that  regularity  and  closeness  of  spacing  that 
will  produce  the  maximum  yield.  If  the  expense  is  not  found  to  be 
too  great  in  comparison  with  the  return,  forests  should  be  cultivated 
with  the  same  care  both  as  to  species  and  as  to  distribution,  and  pos¬ 
sibly,  too,  as  to  rotation,  that  the  intelligent  farmer  uses  in  planting 
his  fields.  In  this  way  returns  equal  to  what  we  now  get  could  be 
secured  from  a  much  smaller  forested  area,  and  there  can  be  no  valid 
objection  to  decreasing  the  area  where  homes  and  a  weU-fed  people  take 
the  place  of  wild  animals  and  the  wilderness. 

It  is  found  that  in  some  limited  areas  where  the  forest  is  cleared 
away,  the  soil,  owing  to  its  nature  and  slope,  will  not  admit  of  suc¬ 
cessful  cultivation.  It  may  ’wash  so  badly  under  heavy  rains  as  to 
become  unfit  even  for  reforesting.  In  others,  owing  to  the  nature 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  5 

of  the  surface,  cultivation  is  impossible.  These  are  fit  places  for 
local  control,  provided  such  control  is  commercially  feasible,  but  not 
for  national  control,  unless  it  can  be  demonstrated  that  the  conditions 
at  these  'places  materially  affect  the  navigability  of  streams  or  harmfully 
affect  the  climate  of  the  continent  at  large. 

The  great  value  of  forests  as  fuel  producers  is  admitted  on  every 
hand,  and  because  of  the  growing  cost  of  coal  their  importance  in 
this  particular  is  likely  to  increase  rather  than  diminish,  and  of  course 
without  them  the  world  would  be  deprived  of  that  beautiful  building 
material  which  from  the  earliest  ages  it  has  used  so  freely  and  regarded 
as  indispensable,  but  which  in  the  future  may  be  used  in  a  less  ratio 
as  the  use  of  noncombustible  materials,  like  concrete,  stone,  and 
steel,  becomes  more  general,  and  certainly  their  use  will  increase.  No 
reason  in  addition  to  these  can  be  needed  to  justify  an  immediate  and 
vigorous  effort  on  the  part  of  individuals,  and  especially  on  the  part 
of  governments,  to  teach  and  to  insure  the  wisest  national  use — that 
is,  wisest  use  when  both  the  present  and  the  future  are  properly  con¬ 
sidered — of  all  existing  forests,  and  also  where  and  how  best  to  secure 
other  forested  areas. 

Nevertheless  additional  reasons  are  urged,  and  in  some  cases  urged 
as  the  paramount  reasons  for  forest  conservation,  which  will  not 
stand  the  test  of  investigation. 

EFFECT  OF  FOREST  ON  CLIMATE. 

It  is  often  said  that  the  climate  of  a  given  place  depends  upon  the 
extent  and  proximity  of  wooded  areas ;  that  the  number  of  rainy  days 
and  the  total  amount  of  rainfall  are  modified  by  change  of  forest 
extent;  that  the  depth  of  floods,  the  shallowness  of  low  water,  and 
the  regularity  of  flow  are  all  profoundly  modified  by  changing  the 
proportion  of  fields  to  forests  in  the  watershed. 

Now,  the  extent  and  even  the  nature  of  these  influences  is  not  a 
matter,  as  often  is  implied,  of  universal  agreement.  In  regard  to 
change  of  climate,  regardless  of  the  cause,  trustworthy  records  of 
temperature,  of  rainfall,  and  of  other  meteorological  elements  do  not 
cover  a  sufficient  range  of  time  to  furnish  all  the  data  necessary  for 
a  statistical  solution  of  this  problem.  However,  there  appears  to  be 
plenty  of  evidence  that  there  have  been  times  in  the  remote  past 
when  the  salt  seas  both  of  Asia  and  of  America  had  surfaces  of  greatly 
increased  size  over  those  that  now  exist.  There  is  evidence  also  that 
in  certain  of  these  regions  trees  once  grew  more  abundantly  than  is 
now  the  case.  This,  however,  must  not  be  taken  as  proof  that  there 
has  been  a  decrease  of  rainfall  due  to  destruction  of  the  forests.  It 
is  true  that  the  forests  have  diminished — in  some  cases  wholly  van¬ 
ished — and  it  is  also  true  that  the  evidence  strongly  supports  the 
assumption  of  a  decrease  in  rainfall,  and  therefore,  of  course,  of  a 
greater  or  less  change  of  climate;  but  this  decrease  of  precipitation 
might  better  be  regarded  as  the  cause  rather  than  as  the  result  of 
the  barren  condition  of  the  soil.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  for¬ 
ests  were  ever  more  extensive  in  Alaska  and  in  other  high-latitude 
countries  than  they  now  are.  Nevertheless,  in  these  countries,  too, 
just  as  in  arid  regions  of  the  great  continents,  there  is  evidence  of 
the  same  slow,  long-period  climatic  change — a  decrease  of  precipi¬ 
tation  or  an  increase  of  temperature,  or  both — a  change  that  can 


6  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

not  be  due  to  deforestation.  This  evidence  consists  in  the  slow  irregu¬ 
lar  retreat  (followed  once  in  a  while  by  a  slight  advance)  and  diminu¬ 
tion  of  the  glaciers,  which  phenomenon  is  said  to  be  universal  regard¬ 
less  of  latitude,  of  longitude,  and  of  elevation,  and  which  appears  to 
have  been  in  more  or  less  steady  progress  with,  however,  occasional 
temporary  relapses  of  one  or  another  magnitude  since  the  culmina¬ 
tion  of  the  great  ice  age.  In  fact,  we  can  reasonably  say  that  we 
are  even  yet  in  the  ice  age — a  vanishing  age  to  be  sure,  but  one  not 
wholly  gone — and,  further,  that  whatever  marked  climatic  changes  take 
'place  they  are  essentially  universal  and  not  local. 

Prof.  William  J.  Humphreys,  Ph.  D.,  Johns  Hopkins,  professor  of 
meteorological  physics,  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  says: 

These  universal  slow  climatic  changes  that  for  thousands  of  years  have  been  modi¬ 
fying  the  glaciers  and  changing  the  inland  seas  might  very  well  have  led  to  extensive 
forest  destruction;  but  that  it  itself  was  the  effect  and  the  destruction  of  the  trees 
the  cause  seems  most  unlikely. 


DESICCATION  IN  ASIA. 

In  this  connection  I  would  refer  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Ellsworth 
Huntington,  B.  A.  of  Beloit  and  M.  A.  of  Harvard.  For  four  years, 
1897-1901,  he  was  the  President’s  assistant  and  instructor  at  Euphra¬ 
tes  College,  Harput,  Turkey.  He  explored  the  canyon  of  the  Euphra¬ 
tes  River  in  1901  and  was  awarded  the  Gill  Memorial  by  the  Royal 
Geographic  Society  of  London.  He  was  research  assistant  in  the 
Carnegie  Institution,  of  Washington,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Pum- 
pelly  expedition  to  Russian  Turkestan  in  1903-4.  He  spent  one  and 
one-half  years  in  Turkestan  and  Persia  and  a  like  period  in  India, 
China,  and  Siberia  as  a  member  of  the  Barrett  expedition.  He  has 
been  instructor  in  geography  at  Yale  since  1907.  He  explored  the 
Lop  basin  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  whose  length  is  1,400  miles  and  whose 
maximum  width  from  north  to  south  is  400  miles,  embracing  an  area 
as  large  as  that  portion  of  the  United  States  east  of  Lake  ^Michigan 
and  north  of  Tennessee.  Most  of  the  basin  is  desert.  In  an  article 
in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  for  November,  1908,  dated  at  Yale 
University,  November  10  of  the  same  year,  he  says: 

The  Lop  basin  contains  abundant  evidences  of  climatic  changes,  and  has  been  dis¬ 
cussed  in  detail  by  the  writer  in  “The  Pulse  of  Asia.”  Throughout  the  basin  the 
amount  of  vegetation  has  greatly  decreased  in  recent  times  without  the  intervention 
of  man.  On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Kuenlun  Mountains  the  dissected  condition  of 
numerous  deposits  of  loess  shows  that  a  cover  of  grass  prevailed  at  no  remote  date,  but 
has  now  disappeared.  In  the  zone  of  vegetation  plants  of  all  kinds  show  signs  of  a 
process  of  drying  up  which  has  been  in  progress  for  centuries.  Tamarisk  bushes  stand 
upon  mounds  from  5  to  60  feet  high,  a  sure  sign  of  the  lowering  of  the  level  of  ground 
water;  poplar  forests  which  once  extended  for  scores  of  miles  now  form  wastes  of 
branchless  dead  trunks  like  gaunt  gray  skeletons;  and  beds  of  dead  reeds  cover  hun¬ 
dreds  of  square  miles.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  destruction  of  forests  has 
been  the  cause  of  the  diminution  of  rainfall.  In  the  Lop  basin  the  opposite  appears 
to  be  the  case;  the  supply  of  water  has  diminished,  and  therefore  the  forests  have  died. 
Rainfall  unquestionably  controls  forestation,  but  neither  in  the  Lop  basin  nor  in  other 
parts  of  central  and  western  Asia  is  there  any  good  evidence  that  forests  have  an 
appreciable  effect  upon  rainfall. 

Another  important  line  of  evidence  is  found  in  the  relation  of  rivers  to  the  desert 
of  Taklamakan  and  to  ruins  of  ancient  dwellings.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Lop  basin, 
from  Khotan  eastward  to  Lop  N  or,  the  writer  examined  seventeen  streams  which  are 
worthy  of  notice,  because  of  their  size  or  because  they  support  oases.  All  but  four 
come  to  an  end  in  the  zone  of  vegetation,  where  they  spread  out  and  disappear  either 
naturally  or  because  used  for  irrigation.  Hence  it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  7 


or  not  they  have  decreased  in  length.  At  the  lower  ends  of  the  other  four,  old  channels 
are  found  lined  with  dead  forests,  which  prove  that  the  streams  once  extended  from 
8  to  "25  miles  farther  than  is  now  the  case  before  finally  becoming  swallowed  up  in 
the  sand . 

FORESTS  IN  EVIDENCE  AFTER  STREAMS  HAVE  DRIED  UP. 

The  fact  that  dead  forests  stand  long  after  the  streams  have  receded 
seems  to  prove  that  they  are  the  last  to  disappear  rather  than  the  first, 
and  therefore  that  their  removal  did  not  precede  the  drought  but  rather 
that  the  forests  ceased  to  exist  when  the  rainfall  became  deficient. 
Unmistakable  evidence  is  found  of  the  existence  of  extensive  forests 
in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  where  only  the  petrified  trunks  of  trees 
now  remain.  It  can  not  be  said  that  man  removed  these  forests  and 
brought  on  the  drought. 

LOCAL  CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES  OF  FORESTS. 

One  may  conclude  from  the  evidence  gathered  from  many  sources 
that  summer  temperature  is  slightly  less  in  the  forests  and  in  their 
neighborhood,  especially  to  the  leeward,  than  it  is  in  corresponding 
cleared  sections.  Forest  temperature  is  also  slightly  higher  during 
cold  weather  than  is  that  of  open  fields,  due  presumably  to  the  inter¬ 
ference  of  the  trees,  even  when  of  the  deciduous  type,  with  free  ground 
radiation. 

The  increase  of  winter  temperature,  however,  is  not  equal  to  the 
decrease  of  that  of  summer,  the  season  during  which  most  vegetation 
needs  all  of  the  heat  it  can  get;  and,  therefore,  it  happens  that  wooded 
areas  may  slightly  retard  the  growth  of  crops  in  their  neighborhood, 
as  is  said  to  be  the  case  in  the  uplands  of  Mauritius. 

With  regard  to  the  effects  of  forests  on  rainfall,  I  quote  the  follow¬ 
ing  from  recent  writings  of  Prof.  Cleveland  Abbe,  who  is  the  senior 
professor  of  the  Weather  Bureau  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Science.  He  says: 

It  is  a  pity  that  the  errors  of  past  centuries  should  still  continue  to  be  disseminated 
long  after  scientific  research  has  overthrown  them.  It  is  easy  to  start  false  theories  and 
to  believe  them,  because  they  are  generally  simple  and  plausible,  but  long  years  of 
work  are  necessary  before  we  get  at  the  secrets  of  nature.  In  this  day  and  generation, 
the  idea  that  forests  either  increase  or  diminish  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  from  the 
clouds  is  not  worthy  to  be  entertained  by  rational,  intelligent  men. 

Gauges  exposed  over  forests  universally  catch  more  than  gauges 
exposed  at  the  same  elevation  in  the  open.  Professor  Abbe  explains 
this  as  follows : 

The  main  trouble  consists  in  the  assumption  that  the  water  caught  and  measured 
in  the  rain  gauge  correctly  represents  the  rainfall .  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  obser¬ 
vations  bearing  directly  on  this  question  are  those  made  by  Brandis  and  Blanford  in 
India,  where  rain  gauges  were  placed  both  on  the  ground  and  above  the  tree  tops  at 
the  height  of  60  feet  in  well-watered  regions.  The  high  gauges  in  the  forest  recorded 
4  per  cent  greater  catch  than  those  at  the  same  height  in  the  open  fields,  and  the  low 
gauges  on  the  ground  in  cleared  spaces  in  the  forest  gave  2  per  cent  greater  catch  than 
those  in  open  lands.  But  these  figures  do  not  prove  that  the  forest  received  more 
min  than  the  clear  areas,  although  at  first  sight  they  would  seem  to  confirm  that  idea. 
The  fact  is  that  the  forest  gauges  were  better  sheltered  from  the  wind  than  the  open- 
ground  gauges  and  this  caused  them  to  catch  a  larger  proportion  of  the  rain  that  fell. 

The  rain  gauge  has  several  sources  of  error  that  must  be  investigated  and  allowed  for, 
as  in  all  other  meteorological  apparatus,  so  that  we  may  not  use  crude  and  imperfect 
data. .  The  effect  of  the  wind  in  diminishing  the  catch  of  the  rain  gauge  has  frequently 
been  investigated  since  the  first  studies  by  Mikle  in  1819,  and  the  present  state  of  our 


8  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


knowledge  was  convincingly  summarized  *  *  *  in  1887  in  an  Appendix  to  Bulletin 
7,  published  by  the  Forestry  Division,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
This  Bulletin,  edited  by  B.  E.  Fernow,  “the  father  of  American  forestry,  recounts 
the  various  methods  appropriate  to  the  determination  of  the  true  amount  of  precipi¬ 
tation,  and  its  bearing  on  theories  of  forest  influences. 

It  appears  that  in  ordinary  rainfalls  we  have  a  mixture  of  large  and  small  drops  of 
water  descending  with  various  velocities  that  depend  on  their  size,  density,  ana  the 
resistance  of  the  air.  Particles  of  hail  descend  even  faster  than  drops  of  water,  but 
flakes  of  snow  fall  more  slowly.  When  the  wind  strikes  the  side  of  a  rain  gauge  the 
deflected  currents  move  past  this  obstacle  more  rapidly,  and  there  is  an  invisible  layer 
of  wind  above  the  open  mouth  of  the  gauge,  whose  horizontal  motion  is  more  rapid  than 
that  of  the  wind  higher  up.  Some  of  the  larger  falling  drops  may  descend  with  a 
rapidity  sufficient  to  penetrate  this  swiftly  moving  layer  of  air,  but  the  slower  ones 
will  be  carried  over  to  leeward  and  many  will  miss  the  gauge.  The  resulting  loss  of 
rain  will  depend  upon  both  the  horizontal  velocity  of  the  wind  and  the  vertical 
velocity  of  descent  of  the  rain. 

The  fact  that  the  deficit  increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  wind  (which  is  less  over 
the  forest)  has  also  been  proven  in  a  different  way,  viz,  by  shielding  the  gauge  from 
the  wind,  when  the  deficit  becomes  greatly  reduced  in  value.  Professors  Henry, 
Nipher,  Boernstein,  Hellmann,  all  of  them  eminent  investigators,  agree  in  this  con¬ 
clusion. 

Of  two  gauges  exposed  at  the  same  elevation  above  the  ground, 
one  over  the  open  fields  and  the  other  over  a  forest,  just  above  the 
tops  of  the  trees,  the  one  over  the  forest  will  catch  considerably  more 
ram,  because  the  friction  of  the  trees  reduces  the  velocity  of  the  wind 
and  it  does  not  rush  across  the  open  end  of  the  gauge  with  the  same 
speed  that  it  does  across  the  gauge  over  the  open  fields. 

The  influence  of  a  forest  upon  the  rainfall  is  therefore  only  ap¬ 
parent;  it  may  increase  or  diminish  the  catch  of  the  gauge ,  but  not  the 
quantity  of  rain  falling  from  the  cloud. 

Professor  Abbe  further  says: 

Tf  gauges  are  raised  up  year  by  year,  the  deficit  increases;  if  gauges  in  open  fields 
become  surrounded  by  growing  trees  or  higher  buildings,  the  deficit  decreases.  The 
climate  has  not  changed,  but  the  errors  of  the  record  have  done  so.  Those  who  wish 
to  restore  the  good  old  times  before  the  forests  were  cut  down,  when  rain  and  snow 
came  plentifully  and  regularly,  have  only  to  lower  and  shelter  their  rain  gauges  and 
enow  gauges  and,  presto ,  the  climate  has  changed  to  correspond. 

When  rain  is  falling  on  a  forested  region,  about  25  per  cent  is  temporarily  held  far 
above  the  ground  on  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  trees.  In  this  minutely  divided 
condition,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind,  the  drops  evaporate  freely,  so  that  the 
forest  atmosphere  becomes  saturated  and  decidedly  less  moisture  reaches  the  ground 
to  be  absorbed  in  the  forest  humus  than  on  an  equal  volume  of  soil  outside  the  forest. 
A  special  climate  is  therefore  maintained  within  a  forested  area.  The  temperature 
is  lowered  and  the  relative  humidity  is  increased,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  this 
local  forest  climate  extends  outside  the  forest  or  affects  exterior  conditions  to  any 
important  extent.  Of  course,  the  climate  under  a  tree  or  a  tent  or  within  a  house 
differs  from  that  outside,  but  these  are  local  matters  quite  foreign  to  the  broad  ques¬ 
tion,  Do  forests  affect  climate? 

The  climate  within  a  house  is  not  the  climate  of  the  whole  city,  nor  is  the  climate 
of  a  ravine  that  of  the  surrounding  fields.  One  thermometer  or  rain  gauge  in  the 
open  air  does  not  give  the  climate  of  a  State  or  watershed.  The  various  and  restricted 
uses  of  the  word  “ climate ”  have  led  to  our  confusion. 

LOCAL  TEMPERATURE  DIFFERENCES  DUE  TO  CHARACTER  OF  SOIL 

COVERING. 

As  the  result  of  investigations  begun  in  Wisconsin  by  the  author 
over  fifteen  years  ago  and  continued  during  the  past  three  or  four 
years  by  Prof.  Henry  J.  Cox,  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  we  have  found 
that  surprising  results  are  obtained  on  two  surfaces  of  precisely  the 
same  level  on  adjacent  fields,  one  of  them  covered  with  thick  vege¬ 
tation  and  the  other  covered  2  inches  deep  with  sand.  We  have 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  9 

noted  differences  in  temperature  frequently  of  7°  to  9°  in  the  air 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  surface  or  within  a  stratum  3  inches 
deep,  this  difference  being  so  great  that  one  area  would  receive  a  heavy 
deposit  of  frost  and  the  other  (sanded  section)  be  entirely  free  from 
such  frigid  temperatures;  and  the  difference  in  temperature  between 
a  thermometer  exposed  in  the  heart  of  a  city  and  one  in  the  open 
field  but  a  few  miles  away  was  found  to  be  marked.  As  an  illustra¬ 
tion:  A  thermometer  in  a  shelter  at  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  registered  50° 
minimum  temperature  on  a  certain  morning,  while  a  thermometer 
in  the  cranberry  marshes  50  miles  away  fell  to  freezing;  but  these 
were  all  local  irregularities.  The  difference  in  temperature  between 
the  air  over  thick  vegetation  and  that  over  the  sanded  surface  dis¬ 
appeared  within  a  height  of  3  feet,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  tem¬ 
perature  over  La  Crosse  and  over  the  cranberry  marshes  was  the 
same  at  an  altitude  of  200  feet. 

CHANGING  THE  LOCAL  CLIMATE  BY  ARTIFICIAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  covering  of  tobacco  plants  with  thin  cheese  cloth  results  in 
establishing  a  local  climate  which  will  continue  so  long  as  the  cheese 
cloth  remains  in  position.  The  extremes  of  temperature,  both  heat 
and  cold,  are  reduced,  and  the  resulting  climatic  change  produces  a 
marked  effect  upon  all  vegetation  grown  under  the  artificial  condi¬ 
tions.  The  erection  of  a  tent,  of  a  barn,  of  a  dwelling  house,  of  a 
village,  or  the  growth  of  a  great  city,  respectively,  influence  the  local 
climate  in  proportion  to  the  area  that  is  covered,  modified  by  the 
character  or  the  material  used  in  these  constructions.  Likewise  the 
vegetable  .covering  of  the  earth  may  have  a  local  appreciable  effect. 
The  flooding  of  an  area,  the  cutting  away  of  forests,  erosion,  and 
sanding  may  have  either  minute  or  appreciable  effects  upon  local 
climates  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  areas  affected,  but 
this  does  not  mean  that  there  is  any  great  difference  in  the  climatic  effect 
between  a  forest  covering  and  one  of  bushes ,  of  grass,  or  of  growing 
crops ;  and  it  does  not  signify  that  there  is  sufficient  change  in  the  ther- 
mal  conditions ,  due  to  the  activities  of  man,  as  to  vruike  an  appreciable 
difference  in  the  temperature  at  an  altitude  of  one  or  two  hundred  feet, 
or  to  affect  the  general  climatic  conditions,  or  to  cause  storms  to  be  more 
frequent  than  formerly  or  of  greater  severity,  or  to  increase  the  amount 
of  precipitation. 


A  PLEA  FOR  TOLERANCE  OF  OPINION. 

But  this  discussion  should  not  be  approached  in  an  intolerant 
spirit.  .  We  have  accurate  records  of  climate  from  only  a  few  isolated 
places  in  this  country  that  extend  back  for  a  period  of  as  much  as 
one  hundred  years,  and  the  Government’s  extensive  records  only 
cover  a  period  of  forty  years.  I  would  warn  against  hasty  conclu¬ 
sions;  against  accepting  as  final  the  deductions  of  several  investi¬ 
gators  who  have  recently  publicly  discussed  the  flood  records  of  the 
W  eather  Bureau.  They  find  a  most  alarming  increase  in  the  floods 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  other  places,  for  which  I  find  no  justification. 
Let  logic,  reason,  and  investigation  have  time  to  operate,  for  any 
man  may  be.  honestly  mistaken  and  draw  general  conclusions  from 
inconsequential  details  or  deceive  himself  by  the  improper  grouping 


10  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


RECORDS  OF  PRECIPITATION  SHOW  NO  MATERIAL  CHANGE. 


The  records  of  precipitation  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
do  not  show  that  there  has  been  any  appreciable  permanent  decrease 
in  the  rainfall  of  any  section  of  the  United  States.  There  are  un¬ 
doubtedly  periods  covering  a  number  of  years  of  continued  deficiency 
in  precipitation  for  certain  districts,  but  at  the  same  time  other  dis¬ 
tricts  may  show  a  corresponding  increase.  One  of  the  best  and  long¬ 
est  records  of  precipitation  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  is  that 
made  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  by  Mr.  Samuel  Rodman  and  his  son, 
covering  the  period  from  1814  to  within  a  year  or  so  ago,  a  period 
of  about  ninety -five  years.  The  following  table  shows  the  annual 
amount  of  precipitation  during  each  year  of  the  above-named  period, 
from  which  one  can  see  for  himself  the  variations  in  the  amounts 
from  year  to  year,  by  the  ten-year  period,  or  make  other  comparison: 

Table  1. — Annual  precipitation  at  New  Bedford ,  Mass .,  for  the  period,  1814  to  1908. 


Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

Year. 

Amount. 

1814 

43.08 

1833 

42.62 

1852 

46.14 

1871 

49. 60 

1890 

61.69 

1815 

40. 78 

1834 

45. 12 

1853 

39.  47 

1872 

47. 66 

1891 

47.83 

1816 

44. 13 

1835 

47.21 

1854 

53.82 

1873 

51.70 

1892 

42.83 

1817 

43.33 

1836 

42.83 

1855 

41.00 

1874 

49.  34 

1893 

50.27 

1818 

40.  77 

1837 

39.  07 

1856 

37. 09 

1875 

48.33 

1894 

45.89 

1819 

39. 66 

1838 

38.  28 

1857 

43.  30 

1876 

42. 18 

1895 

41.63 

1820 

41.32 

1839 

44.38 

1858 

44.  03 

1877 

47.  04 

1896 

47.73 

1821 

45.64 

1840 

45.  59 

1859 

51.43 

1878 

50.56 

1897 

50.96 

1822 

41.78 

1841 

50. 60 

1860 

39. 73 

1879 

42.31 

1898 

62. 60 

1823 

59.89 

1842 

39.06 

1861 

46.46 

1880 

40.07 

1899 

44.  34 

1824 

47.34 

1843 

50. 67 

1862 

43.32 

1881 

39. 10 

1900 

44.99 

1825 

38.09 

1844 

40.  73 

1863 

45. 10 

1882 

41.38 

1901 

51.84 

1826 

54.77 

1845 

48.06 

1864 

40.96 

1883 

43.51 

1902 

45.42 

1827 

62.  90 

1846 

34.  51 

1865 

46.01 

1884 

54. 99 

1903 

47.  49 

1828 

39.  04 

1847 

45.  91 

1866 

40.  30 

1885 

36.81 

1904 

50.08 

1829 

65.  41 

1848 

40.74 

1867 

47.11 

1886 

49.85 

1905 

41.30 

1830 

64.66 

1849 

36.42 

1868 

56.32 

1887 

51.77 

a  1906 

43.09 

1831 

61.18 

1850 

62.67 

1869 

49.  94 

1888 

55.  07 

1907 

42.  32 

1832 

49. 31 

1851 

51.61 

1870 

47.16 

1889 

52.71 

1908 

38. 61 

a  The  record  lor  New  Bedford  ends  with  the  year  1906;  annual  amounts  for  1907  and  1908  are  for  Fall  River. 
Mass. 


The  average  fall  for  ten-year  periods  from  1814  to  1908,  inclusive, 
indicates  that  while  the  rainfall  during  the  past  few  years  has  been 
considerably  less  than  the  average,  it  has  not  been  less  than  has 
occurred  in  numerous  previous  years — notably  from  1814  to  1819, 
from  1833  to  1839,  and  from  1860  to  1866.  Further  investigation 
shows  that  for  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  period  the  average  annual 
rainfall  at  that  point  was  about  46  inches,  while  during  the  last 
forty-five  years  the  annual  fall  has  increased  to  more  than  47  inches. 
This  indicates  that  instead  of  a  diminishing  rainfall  we  have  the  evidence 
that,  if  there  is  any  variation  at  all  in  the  precipitation,  it  is  a  slight 
increase  for  this  region. 

Figure  1  graphically  shows  the  average  fall  for  ten-year  periods, 
namely,  from  1814  to  1908,  inclusive. 

We  will  now  move  our  inquiry  to  a  part  of  the  Middle  West  where 
there  has  been  no  deforestation.  Here  there  has  been  a  growth  of 
planted  hedge  rows,  of  trees  along  highways  and  fence  lines  and 
about  places  of  habitation,  and  the  virgin  soil  has  been  broken  and 
made  more  permeable  to  the  rainfall. 


Fig.  1.  Average  rainfall  in  ten-year  periods. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  H 


New  Bedford,  Mass. 


12  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

In  Kansas  during  the  last  fifty  years  records  of  rainfall  have  been 
made  only  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  In  the  western  part  of 
the  State  a  single  record  has  been  made,  viz,  at  Dodge  City,  extending 
back  to  1875.  Likewise  in  Nebraska,  the  record  for  North  Platte  is  the 
only  one  that  extends  back  to  the  early  seventies.  The  mean  annual 
rainfall  at  Dodge,  Kans.,  for  the  entire  period  of  observation  is  20.8 
inches,  and  at  North  Platte,  Nebr.,  18.7  inches. 

Considering  the  record  for  the  last  thirty  years  only,  since  it  is 
convenient  to  subdivide  that  number  into  periods  of  equal  length, 
the  mean  becomes  for  Dodge,  21.3  inches,  and  for  North  Platte,  19 
inches.  I  have  also  had  computed  the  average  rainfall  for  three 
additional  stations  in  Kansas,  three  in  Nebraska,  and  one  each  in 
Iowa  and  Missouri  for  the  last  thirty  years,  to  see  whether  the  con¬ 
clusions  reached  from  a  consideration  of  the  Dodge  and  North  Platte 
data  are  of  local  or  general  application.  The  averages  in  periods  of 
ten  years  each  appear  in  the  following  table,  from  which  it  may  be 
clearly  seen  that  the  first  and  the  last  ten  years  were  periods  of 
fairly  abundant  rainfall  and  that  the  middle  ten  years  was  a  period 
of  deficient  rainfall.  It  will  be  further  seen,  and  this  is  the  impor¬ 
tant  point  in  the  discussion,  that  there  is  practically  no  difference 
between  the  rainfall  of  the  first  ten  years  and  the  last  ten  years. 
Three  of  the  ten  stations  show  that  the  last  ten-year  period  "had  a 
slightly  greater  rainfall  than  the  first,  but  the  difference  is  so  small 
that  it  is  really  immaterial.  The  remaining  stations  show  a  slightly 
less  rainfall  in  the  last  ten  years  than  in  the  first.  This  table  shows, 
therefore,  that  the  rainfall  has  neither  increased  nor  diminished  by 
amounts  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  heavy  rains  of  1906,  and  also  the  year  previous,  were  common 
to  all  that  vast  stretch  of  territory  west  of  the  ninety-fifth  meridian. 
It  was  not  a  local  phenomenon  centered  in  western  Kansas  and 
western  Nebraska,  since  equally  heavy  rains  fell  in  Colorado,  Utah, 
western  Texas,  Oklahoma,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  cen¬ 
tral  and  southern  California.  The  explanation  of  the  heavy  rains  can 
not  be  attributed  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  moisture,  since,  as 
has  just  been  stated,  the  heavy  rains  were  common  to  the  arid  and 
mountain  regions  of  the  Southwest  where  very  little  agriculture  is 
practiced. 

Mean  rainfall  at  the  stations  named. 


Stations  and  periods  of  observation. 

For  the 
full 

period  of 
observa¬ 
tion. 

For  the  thirty  years,  1877-1906,  In  periods 
of  ten  years. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Mean. 

Dodge,  Kans.,  1875-1906 . 

Inches. 

20.8 

Inches. 

22.8 

Inches. 

18.4 

Inches. 

22.7 

Inches. 

21.3 

North  Platte,  Nebr.,  1875-1906 . 

18.7 

20.1 

17.2 

19.8 

19.0 

Tndpppndpnpe,  Kans.,  1872-1906 . 

37.1 

39.1 

35.5 

38.1 

37.6 

fipnna,  Nebr.,  1875-1906 . 

28.2 

26.3 

26.4 

31.3 

28.0 

Manhattan ,  Kans.,  1858-1906 . 

30.6 

33.4 

29.2 

31.9 

31.5 

T.awrpnrp,  Kans.,  1868-1906 . 

36.4 

35.1 

39.2 

36.7 

37.0 

Omaha,  Nphr.,  1871—1906 . 

30.7 

37.6 

25.6 

27.9 

30.4 

Minden,  Nebr.,  1878-1906 . 

31.5 

36.1 

29.2 

29.8 

31.7 

Oregon,  Mo.,  1866—1906. . . . 

35.6 

37.1 

32.3 

39.5 

36.3 

Kpnlnitr,  Towa,  1872—1906 . 

35.0 

35.4 

31.4 

35.1 

34.3 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  13 


Pig.  2.  Progressive  Averages  of  Precipitation,  1834-1896. 


14  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


The  annual  fluctuation  in  precipitation  for  two  different  parts  of 
the  United  States,  viz,  New  England  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  is  graphic¬ 
ally  shown  in  figure  2.  The  New  England  curve  was  constructed  from 
the  data  for  Boston,  New  Bedford,  and  Providence,  at  which  points 
fairly  accurate  rainfall  measurements  have  been  made  dating  back  to 
1836.  The  Ohio  Valley  curve  is  based  upon  rainfall  measurements 
made  at  Marietta,  Portsmouth,  and  Cincinnati. 

The  heavy  horizontal  lines  in  the  diagram  represent  the  normal 
precipitation.  The  amount  that  the  actual  fall  or  any  year  exceeded 
or  fell  short  of  the  normal  may  be  found  by  noting  the  intersections 
of  the  curved  lines  with  the  smaller  horizontal  fines,  whose  values  are 
given  in  inches  on  the  left  margin.  If  periods  of  heavy  and  fight  rain¬ 
fall  alternated  regularly,  the  fines  of  departure  from  the  normal 
(the  curved  fine)  would  rise  and  fall  in  a  series  of  bends  or  inflec¬ 
tions  precisely  as  the  temperature  rises  and  falls  with  the  alternation 
of  day  and  night.  Reference  to  the  diagram  itself  will  best  show  how 
closely  the  rainfall  of  the  two  regions  approaches  any  sort  of  periodic¬ 
ity.  The  Ohio  Valley  curve  is  more  symmetrical  than  that  of  New 
England,  and  there  appears  to  be  a  rough  periodicity  of  about  nine 
years  in  it.  Thus  there  were  periods  oi  heavy  rainfall  about  1837, 
1847,  1858,  1866,  1875,  1882,  and  1890,  and  of  drought  in  1839,  1856, 
1863,  1871,  1878,  1886,  and  1895. 

A  comparison  of  the  two  curves  illustrates  the  fact  elsewhere 
referred  to  that  the  rainfall  over  a  region  so  large  as  the  United 
States  is  not  by  any  means  uniform  in  its  distribution.  Thus  the 
period  of  relatively  light  rainfall  in  New  England  during  1880-1883 
was  one  of  heavy  rainfall  in  the  Ohio  Valley  and  elsewhere  in  the 
great  interior  valleys.  Likewise  in  1878  there  was  heavy  rainfall  in 
New  England  and  light  rainfall  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

In  New  England,  where  deforestation  began  early  in  our  history  and 
has  been  extensive,  the  mean  of  the  fluctuations  in  the  rain  curve  is  a 
steady  rise  since  1836  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  and  in  the  Ohio  Valley, 
where  the  forest  area  has  been  greatly  diminished,  there  is  no  decrease 
of  rainfall  shown  by  the  average  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  curve.  These 
facts  are  important  and  can  not  be  successfully  disputed. 

GOVERNMENT  RECORDS  VERSUS  RECOLLECTIONS  OF  OLDEST  INHABI¬ 
TANTS. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  to  publish 
information  with  regard  to  climatic  conditions;  and  in  this  connec¬ 
tion  I  would  call  particular  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  government 
records  are  in  a  class  separate  and  distinct  from  the  recollections  of 
the  oldest  inhabitants,  which  are  entirely  untrustworthy,  no  matter 
how  truthful  the  persons  intend  to  be.  These  recollections  do  not 
justify  the  claim  that  the  forests  have  increased  precipitation,  for  it  is 
almost  the  universal  opinion  of  the  maturer  man  that  the  climate  is 
milder  and  that  the  snows  are  less  deep  than  when  he  was  a  boy.  He 
remembers  the  long  tramp  to  the  little  red  schoolhouse  in  snow  knee 
deep,  but  he  fails  to  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  a  snow  knee 
deep  to  a  boy  of  nine  years  of  age  is  no  inconvenience  to  a  man  of  six 
feet  two.  Human  recollection  can  only  recall  from  the  dim  past 
unusual  storms — conditions  that  were  abnormal,  and  these  abnor- 
malties  are  what  the  man  of  fifty  or  sixty  years  to-day  believes  to 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  15 

have  been  the  average  when  he  was  young.  In  other  words,  the 
individual  recollection  should  be  given  little  weight  in  determining 
a  matter  that  requires  careful  calculation  and  the  preservation  of 
accurate  daily  records  before  anything  like  safe  conclusions  can  be 
reached. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  FORESTS  ON  FLOODS. 

I  have  always  held  to  the  opinion  that  the  cutting  away  of  forests 
has  had  little  or  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  amount  of  precipitation 
or  on  the  general  temperature.  But  until  recent  years  I  did  believe 
that  deforestation  had  an  important  and  beneficial  effect  on  the  con¬ 
servation;  that  is,  on  the  economical  use  of  the  rainfall,  and  that 
forests  restricted  the  run-off.  But  study  and  investigation  have 
caused  me  to  modify  my  views. 

Professor  Abbe  says : 

The  cultivated  soil  outside  the  forest,  when  plowed  and  broken  open  down  to  a 
depth  of  8  inches,  acts  as  a  sponge  to  retain  water  quite  as  well  as  does  the  ordinary 
humus  of  a  forest,  especially  when  we  consider  that  under  a  forest  less  rain  actually 
enters  the  humus.  In  fact  such  measurements  as  have  been  made  show  that  the 
amount  of  water  that  is  eventually  given  up  from  the  forest  humus  varies  but  little 
from  that  given  up  in  the  course  of  time  by  the  unforested,  cultivated  soil.  The  total 
run-off  from  the  two  regions  does  not  eventually  differ  greatly,  but  it  does  differ  in  the 
speed .  However,  it  may  be  neither  the  amount  nor  the  speed  of  run-off  from  the  soil 
that  determines  the  occurrence  of  river  floods.  We  must  distinguish  between  the 
soil  run-off  and  the  river  run-off.  When  water  has  once  entered  the  river  channel  its 
movements  are  determined  wholly  by  the  force  of  gravity,  the  curvature,  the  section, 
and  the  slope  of  the  channel.  Floods  may  occur  in  every  small  tributary  and  yet 
these  waters  may  so  enter  the  main  channel  as  to  produce  only  a  gentle  rise  through¬ 
out  its  whole  length.  At  other  times  the  smaller  elementary  floods  may  conspire  and 
produce  a  specially  disastrous  flood  in  the  main  channel.  Therefore  the  occurrence 
of  disastrous  floods  does  not  depend  on  rainfall  alone  or  wholly  on  soil  run-off,  but 
equally  and  principally  on  the  relative  times  at  which  floods  occur  in  the  individual 
tributaries,  and  the  time  required  by  them  all  to  reach  and  combine  at  any  given 
point  in  the  main  channel. 

This  is  a  tangled  problem,  since  the  result  must  depend  upon  the 
slope  of  the  ground;  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil;  the  nature 
of  the  forest,  whether  deciduous  or  evergreen;  the  nature  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  climate  of  the  place,  whether  it  has  cold,  snowy  winters  or  rainy 
ones,  and  whether  the  spring  merges  gradually  or  abruptly  into  sum¬ 
mer;  upon  the  use  or  treatment  of  the  cleared  surface;  and  probably 
upon  other  conditions. 

The  foresters  are  generally  in  accord  in  the  belief  that  the  forests 
exercise  a  marked  restraining  influence  on  floods  and  a  conserving 
influence  on  precipitation,  even  if  they  do  not  actually  increase,  by  an 
appreciable  amount,  the  rainfall.  On  the  other  side,  army  and  civilian 
engineers  and  meteorologists  generally  believe  that  the  broken, 
cultivated,  permeable  soil,  which  is  covered  for  a  greater  portion  of 
each  year  with  millions  of  the  rootlets  of  growing  grasses  and  cereals, 
is  equally  as  good  a  conserver  of  the  rainfall  as  the  forest  area  itself, 
even  though  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  the  deep  boring  of  large 
roots  into  the  substratum;  that  the  evergreen  forests  prevent  the 
drifting  of  the  snow  and  at  the  same  time  their  heavy  foliage  protects 
the  snow  from  the  sun  and  permits  a  slow  melting,  which  is  all 
absorbed  by  the  forest  cover  until  it  is  saturated,  and  then  with  further 
heat  the  water  breaks  out  in  a  flood;  that  the  function  of  deciduous 
forest  trees  is  to  catch  the  falling  snow,  distribute  it  equally  over  the 
surface,  and  thus  facilitate  more  rapid  melting  by  causing  the  snow 
to  present  to  the  warm  air  a  greater  melting  surface  than  it  does  in  the 


16  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

open,  where  wind  drifts  it  into  banks  in  the  lee  of  opposing  objects 
and  stores  it  in  depressions  and  ravines,  so  that  it  may  remain  for  a 
considerable  time  after  the  evenly  distributed  blanket  has  disap¬ 
peared  from  the  forests. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Chittenden  that  in  Yellowstone  Park  and 
similar  mountain  regions  the  forests  protect  the  snow  from  drifting, 
melting,  and  evaporating,  while  in  the  open  there  is  much  drifting 
and  an  early  clearing  up  of  those  places  well  exposed  to  wind  and  to 
sunshine;  therefore,  when  warm  weather  and  its  rain  come  on 
abruptly,  and  come  to  stay  for  the  summer,  as  they  do  in  those 
regions,  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  forests,  because  of  the  greater 
area  exposed,  the  surface  being  uniformly  covered,  is  far  more  rapid 
than  it  is  in  the  open  where  it  is  badly  drifted,  and  leads  to  higher 
freshets  and  less  enduring  run-offs.  On  the  whole ,  it  is  'probable  that 
forests  have  little  to  do  vnth  the  height  of  floods  in  main  tributaries  and 
principal  streams ,  since  they  occur  only  as  the  result  of  extensive  and 
heavy  rains ,  after  the  ground  is  everywhere  saturated ,  or  when  heavy 
warm  rains  come  on  the  top  of  deep  snows. 

RUN-OFF  AND  ABSORPTION. 

Concerning  the  surface  run-off,  it  appears  to  be  generally  held  that 
when  the  rainfall  is  small,  the  dead  leaves,  the  moss,  the  tangle  of 
undergrowth,  and  the  like,  in  the  forests  may  modify  or  entirely 
prevent  flow,  and  may  slightly  intensify  low-water  conditions  of 
summer,  -while  on  the  cleared  surfaces,  except  that  of  freshly-cultivated 
fields,  this  is  not  so  markedly  the  case.  When  the  rains  are  heavy  and 
continued,  there  is  surface  flow  in  the  forests  as  well  as  in  the  open, 
and  the  two  do  not  materially  differ,  for  it  can  be  shown  that  the 
run-off  from  a  smooth  surface  and  from  one  covered  with  sticks, 
dense  grasses,  or  forest,  are  equal  after  the  rough  surface  becomes 
saturated,  and  it  is  long  after  all  surfaces  have  become  saturated  that 
flood  conditions  can  occur. 

Because  of  their  open,  porous  condition  sandy  soils  and  freshly 
plowed  fields  are  the  best  absorbers,  and  in  general  forest  ground  is 
thought  to  be  more  penetrable  to  moisture  than  is  that  of  the  cleared 
fields,  except  when  the  latter  are  freshly  broken,  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  cleared  land  is  either  broken  and  cultivated  several  times  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  or  else  it  is  occupied  by  vegetation  that  exercises  either 
partly  or  wholly  as  great  a  conserving  influence  as  the  forest. 

All  of  these  problems  could  be  definitely  settled  beyond  the  possi¬ 
bility  of  argument  if  we  had  accurate  river  gaugings  from  day  to  day 
and  year  to  year,  together  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  rainfall  and 
of  the  proportion  of  the  wooded  to  cleared  areas,  data  that  unfor¬ 
tunately  we  do  not  have.  We  must,  therefore,  reason  empirically 
from  the  best  information  at  hand,  and  this  insufficiency  of  data 
renders  less  positive  the  conclusions  of  all  investigators,  no  matter 
which  side  or  the  question  they  may  be  on. 

EFFECT  OF  FORESTS  ON  FLOODS  IN  FRANCE. 

An  important  contribution  to  this  discussion  was  made  in  1873  by 
Capt.  Charles  J.  Allen,  of  the  Engineer  Corps,  U.  S.  Army,  in  the 
translation  that  he  made  of  extracts  from  the  work  of  M.  F.  Valles, 
which  treats  of  the  influence  of  forests  on  floods  and  inundations. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  17 


This  translation  contains  quotations  from  the  works  of  M.  Belgrand 
and  other  French  engineers,  who  had  made  the  hydrology  of  the 
basin  of  the  Seine  a  special  study.®  Among  other  things  M.  Bel- 
grand  says: 

This  country  comprises  all  or  part  of  21  Departments,  as  follows:  Aisne,  Ardennes, 
Aube,  Cote  d’Or,  Eure,  Eure-et-Loire,  Loiret,  Marne,  Haute-Mame,  Nievre,  Nord, 
Oise,  Pas-de-Calais,  Seine,  Seine-Inferieure,  Seine-et-Marne,  Somme,  Vosges,  and 
Yonne,  and  comprises  an  area  of  about  107,000  square  kilometers,  nearly  equal  to 
the  fifth  part  of  the  area  of  country  comprising  the  86  Departments. 

The  most  irregular  streams,  those  most  subject  to  rapid  rises,  are  found  especially 
in  the  Departments  of  the  Yonne,  Nievre,  and  Cote  d’Or,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  those 
of  the  Aube,  Haute-Mame,  and  Aisne.  This  region  is  very  woody,  more  so,  perhaps, 
than  the  rest  of  France.  The  most  remarkable  Departments  in  regard  to  the  regularity 
of  the  water  courses  which  rise  within  them  are  the  Eure,  Eure-et-Loire,  Nord,  Oise, 
Pas-de-Calais,  Seine-Inferieure,  Somme,  the  chalky  parts  of  the  Aube  and  of  the 
Marne,  and  those  portions  of  the  Seine-et-Oise  and  Loiret  in  which  the  limestones  of 
La  Beauce  abound.  The  majority  of  the  streams  in  these  countries  are  subject  to 
slight  rises  of  short  duration,  their  stage  of  water  varying  but  little.  This  group  of 
Departments  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  sparsely  wooded  in  France,  because  the  Eure, 
Eure-et-Loire,  Nord,  Oise,  Pas-de-Calais,  Seine-Inferieure,  and  the  Somme  have 
only  about  one-tenth  of  their  surface  wooded,  and  the  plateaus  of  La  Beauce  and  the 
chalky  plains  of  Champagne  are,  if  we  except  some  recent  plantations  of  pine,  com¬ 
pletely  bare  of  trees. 

In  order  to  test  the  question  as  to  the  effect  of  forests  in  regulating  the  flow  of  water 
M.  Belgrand  had  daily  measurements  made  from  November,  1850,  to  May,  1853,  of 
the  discharges  of  the  Cousin  and  of  the  Grenetierre,  which  is  one  of  its  affluents.  Both 
of  these  basins  are  of  granite  formation,  impermeable  and  otherwise  alike,  but  the 
first  is  only  about  one-third  wooded,  while  the  second  is  entirely  covered  with  trees. 
Notwithstanding  this  great  difference  as  regards  the  extent  of  forests  in  each,  the 
results  have  been  the  same  in  both,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  account: 

“  The  regimen  of  each  is  identically  the  same,  although  their  valleys  are  unequally 
wooded.  Their  waters  rise  and  fall  at  the  same  rate,  whether  in  rainy  weather  or  in 
dry,  in  winter  or  in  summer;  their  low  winter  regimen  is  more  abundant  than  that 
of  summer. 

“A  heavy  rain  in  winter  produces  in  both  a  sudden  flood  of  greater  or  less  height, 
but  of  very  short  duration,  followed  by  a  long  stage  of  tolerably  high  water;  the  sudden 
and  high  freshets  take  place  in  each  at  the  same  time.” 

The  different  details  concerning  the  flow  of  water  are,  then,  exactly  the  same  in 
the  two  basins,  and  yet  one  is  entirely  covered  with  forests,  while  in  the  other  two- 
thirds  is  bare  of  trees.  M.  Belgrand  has  made  a  number  of  more  detailed  observations 
yet,  which  show,  further,  that  it  is  not  upon  forests  but  upon  cultivated  ground  that 
the  greatest  regularity  in  flowage  is  observed.  *  *  * 

In  Valles’s  paper  he  quotes  from  a  report  on  the  basin  of  the  Eure 
made  by  M.  St.  Clair,  engineer  in  chief,  showing  the  beneficial  effects 
of  cleared  and  cultivated  lands  in  diminishing  by  absorption  the 
amount  of  surface  water,  as  follows: 

All  the  valleys,  even  those  of  least  extent,  are  cut  up  by  ravines  which  were  often 
formerly  the  beds  of  torrents.  Within  the  last  twelve  years  the  condition  has  changed ; 
they  are  now  almost  always  dry.  The  cause  of  this  great  change,  the  progress  of  agri¬ 
culture,  is  generally  recognized  in  the  country.  The  soil  has  been  cultivated  more 
and  rendered  more  permeable;  the  farmers,  reaping  more  advantages  from  the  culture 
of  the  ground,  and  fully  aware  of  the  utility  of  improving  it,  have,  by  means  of  ditches, 
hedges,  and  endikements  properly  located,  controlled  the  flow  of  water  everywhere, 
preventing  erosion,  causing  fertilizing  deposits  of  sediment,  and  relieving  the  surface 
of  the  ground  from  the  asperities  which  interfered  with  cultivation.  The  waters, 
retarded  thus  in  their  flow,  have  settled  in  great  part  through  the  ground  and  disap¬ 
peared  before  reaching  the  ravines. 

These  agricultural  improvements,  in  a  country  where  land  susceptible  of  cultiva¬ 
tion,  amounts  to  sixty-one  one-hundredths  of  the  area  of  the  country,  have,  then, 
reduced  the  surface  flowage  and  increased  the  absorption. 


“Annales  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  annee  1852,  premier  semestre,  p.  102. 
26320—10 - 2 


18  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


They  have  rendered  less  freouent  and  formidable  the  freshets,  which,  in  the  basin 
of  the  Eure,  are  to  be  attributed  to  an  excess  of  surface  water  rather  than  to  any  supply 
from  springs,  which  latter  is  almost  always  invariable. 

The  effect  upon  springs  of  cutting  down  forests  can  now  be  easily  eliminated.  We 
will  divide  them  into  two  classes,  viz,  superficial  and  subterranean. 

The  first  issue  from  the  points  of  the  surface  very  near  to  the  strata  in  which  the 
waters  which  produce  them  collect.  The  second,  on  the  contrary,  are  found  very  far 
below  these  strata,  and  the  water,  in  order  to  find  an  outlet,  traverses  frequently  long 
distances  underground. 

The  first,  generally  small,  pertain  indifferently  to  absorbent  or  nonabeorbent  ground ; 
but  the  second,  occasionally  very  powerful,  pertain  essentially  and  almost  exclusively 
to  permeable  soils. 

Now,  it  is  indisputable  that  the  continual  humidity  of  the  soil  of  forests  is  favorable 
to  the  first  and  ought  to  maintain  in  their  feeble  flow  considerable  regularity.  It  is, 
then,  very  likely  that  the  clearing  away  of  forests  and  exposing  the  earth  to  alternations 
of  drought  and  moisture  would  alter  the  regimen  of  these  springs;  that  these  would 
be  more  abundant  in  time  of  rain;  that  they  would  decrease  in  summer  and  possibly 
be  dry  for  several  months  in  the  year.  This  explains  the  disappearance  of  certain 
springs  after  the  cutting  down  of  forests. 

As  regards  the  second  group,  which  are  plentifully  supplied  by  infiltration  through 
the  permeable  soils,  it  is  different. 

From  the  different  manner  in  which,  as  regards  absorption,  wooded  and  cultivated 
soils  act,  we  see  that  in  the  first  this  faculty  is  in  great  part  destroyed,  wdiile  in 
the  second  it  is  increased.  To  remove  standing  timber  from  permeable  soils  is  to 
restore  to  them  the  facility  of  transmitting  the  waters  which  the  forest  vegetation, 
whether  by  the  spreading  of  its  roots,  by  the  fall  of  leaves,  or  by  the  compactness  of 
the  soil,  had  taken  from  them,  and  it  results,  consequently,  in  a  more  abundant 
supply  of  water  to  the  subterranean  springs. 

Thus,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  most  abundant  of  all  of  them,  especially  in 
seasons  of  low  water,  are  located  beneath  the  vast  ledges  of  limestone  which  are  almost 
entirely  denuded ;  for  instance,  those  of  Cahors  and  Louysse,  in  the  department  du  Lot, 
and  the  famous  fountain  of  Vaucluse,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made. 

M.  Belgrand  further  says: 

Now  these  basins,  so  remarkably  alike,  we  have;  they  are  those  of  the  Seine  in 
the  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Everything  in  these  is  alike 
excepting  the  extent  of  the  forests,  which  has  steadily  decreased,  so  that  if  we  were 
in  possession  of  adequate  information  of  some  exact  measurements  of  the  greatest 
inundations  during  the  time  specified,  we  could  easily  test  the  correctness  of  our 
theories. 

In  fact,  observations  of  this  nature  have  been  made;  they  go  back  to  1615,  about 
the  time  when  French  industry  began  to  develop,  and  when,  consequently,  the  felling 
of  timber  to  a  great  extent  commenced. 

This  places  at  our  disposal  an  interval  of  five  half  centuries. 

In  a  memoir  published  in  1814  by  the  engineer  Egault,  these  observations  were 
compiled,  discussed,  and  arranged  wdth  reference  to  the  heights  of  the  most  marked 
inundations.  We  add  to  the  results  collated  by  them  those  which  have  been  obtained 
since  his  time  and  give  them  in  the  following  table: 


Dates  of  the  inundations. 

Height  at 
the  bridge 
of  La  Tour- 
nelle. 

Mean  per 
half  cen¬ 
tury. 

July  11, 1615 . 

Feet. 

29.99 

Feet. 

}  27.53 

January,  1649 . 

25. 10 

January,  1651 . 

25.59 

1 

March  1, 1658 . 

28. 87 

\  26.36 

March,  1690 . 

24.61 

March,  1711 . 

24.  77 

}  25.34 

December  25,  1740 . 

25.92 

January,  1751 . 

21.98 

November  14,  1764 . 

22. 97 

22.42 

March  4, 1784. . 

21.85 

February  4, 1799 . 

22. 87 

January '3, 1802 . 

24.  44 

March  3, 1807 . 

21.85 

21.22 

May,  1836 . 

18.  66 

February,  1850 . 

19.91 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  19 

The  deductions  from  this  table  are  striking.  The  continued  decrease  of  the  floods 
for  each  half  century  is  remarkable.  The  waters  attained  a  mean  height  of  27.53 
feet  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century;  they  only  attained  a  mean  of  21.22 
feet  in  the  present.  According  to  this,  we  have  experienced  an  amelioration  of 
nearly  6.56  feet,  and  yet  the  trees  have  been  steadily  and  unceasingly  cut  down, 
and  the  forests  transformed  into  cultivated  farms. 

What  would  we  gain,  then,  to-day,  I  ask,  in  rewooding  our  field?  It  would  be 
but  an  unfortunate  attempt  to  restore  the  old  order  of  things,  when  the  floods  of  the 
Seine  rose  to  29.53  feet  above  the  low  stage. 

In  connection  with  the  conclusions  reached  in  this  report,  as  well 
as  with  regard  to  those  reached  by  the  foresters  and  others  who  differ 
from  my  views,  I  would  emphasize  the  fact  that  none  of  us  have 
flood  data  extending  over  any  great  period  of  time,  but  in  Europe 
we  fortunately  have  some  long-period  observations.  The  preceding 
pages  show  the  result  of  observations  made  by  competent  engineers 
during  two  and  one-half  centuries  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and 
show  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  and  constant  decrease  in  the 
height  of  floods  with  the  diminution  of  forests. 

In  Germany  another  long-period  record  is  presented.  Mr.  Ernest 
Lauder,  chief  of  the  hydrographic  bureau  of  the  Austrian  Govern¬ 
ment,  recently  made  an  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  records  of 
the  Danube,  the  great  river  of  central  Europe.  He  prepared  an 
exhaustive  report  on  the  destructive  floods  in  the  Danube  that 
occurred  in  1897  and  1899,  and  in  this  report  traces  the  history  of 
the  floods  of  the  Danube  for  eight  hundred  years,  taking  into  account 
125  different  floods.  His  conclusions  are  that  progressive  deforesta¬ 
tion  of  the  country  has  had  no  effect  in  increasing  the  frequency  of 
floods  or  in  augmenting  their  height.  Among  other  things  he  showed 
that  the  flood  of  1899,  which  was  a  summer  flood,  was  severest  where 
it  came  from  the  heavily  wooded  districts. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  barren  condition  of  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  great 
cities  and  teeming  populations  once  covered  the  regions  now  barren; 
but  this  does  not  prove  that  if  there  has  been  a  decrease  in  . the  rainfall 
it  is  due  to  deforestation,  for  everywhere  in  this  region  are  evidences 
of  extensive  irrigation  that  was  practised  at  the  time  this  region 
was  thickly  populated.  The  date  palm,  the  vine,  and  the  fig  tree 
will  grow  there  as  luxuriantly  to-day  as  in  the  old  Biblical  days,  if 
artificial  irrigation  is  used,  as  was  formerly  done.  It  is  not  believed 
that  the  cutting  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  has  had  anything  to  do 
with  the  dryness  of  the  adjacent  regions. 

At  the  tenth  International  Congress  of  Irrigation,  held  at  Milan 
in  1905,  papers  were  presented  by  representatives  from  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Austria,  and  Russia,  in  which  the  writers  heartily 
favored  the  protection  of  the  forests  and  their  cultivation.  But 
these  writers  were  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  forests  exercise 
little  influence  upon  either  the  high  water  or  the  low  water  of  rivers. 

In  this  connection  I  will  quote  rrom  Col.  H.  M.  Chittenden,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  volume  34,  page  944,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers,  as  follows: 

The  constantly  reiterated  statement  that  floods  are  increasing  in  frequency  and 
intensity,  as  compared  with  former  times,  has  nothing  to  support  it.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  periods  when  floods  are  more  frequent  than  at  others,  and  hasty  conclusions 
are  always  drawn  at  such  times;  but,  taking  the  records  year  after  year  for  consider¬ 
able  periods,  no  change  worth  considering  is  discoverable.  The  explanation  of  these 
periods  of  high  water,  like  the  one  now  prevailing,  must,  of  course,  be  sought  in  pre- 


20  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

cipitation.  That  is  where  floods  come  from,  and  it  is  very  strange  that  those  who  are 
looking  so  eagerly  for  a  cause  of  these  floods  jump  at  an  indirect  cause  and  leave  the 
direct  one  entirely  untouched.  In  the  records  of  precipitation,  wherever  they  exist, 
will  be  found  a  full  and  complete  explanation  of  every  one  of  the  floods  that  have 
seemed  unusually  frequent  and  severe  in  recent  years. 

THE  SOURCE  OF  FLOOD  WATERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Before  one  can  get  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
problem  involved  in  the  creation  of  the  floods  of  the  United  States, 
it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  first  study  chart  A,  which  gives  a 
typical  illustration  of  the  cyclonic  storms  that  frequently  form  on 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Plateau,  either  on  its  northern,  central,  or 
southern  portions.  Under  the  influence  of  gravity  air  flows  from 
regions  where  the  pressure  is  great  toward  the  regions  where  it  is  less. 
In  the  case  illustrated  by  this  chart  the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by 
the  direction  in  which  the  arrows  point,  is  flowing  from  the  region 
marked  “high,”  which  is  central  over  the  Carolinas,  toward^the 
region  where  the  pressure  is  low,  which  is  central  over  Montana, 
and  the  vaporous  atmosphere  that  rises  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  adjacent  ocean  is  carried  far  into  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
Conditions  similar  to  these  occur  many  times  each  month,  and  as 
a  result  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  United  States  are 
bathed  in  a  succession  of  rains  which,  as  shown  by  chart  B,  gradually 
thin  out  and  largely  disappear  on  the  eastward  edge  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Plateau,  because  the  currents  of  air  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  do  not  reach  farther  inland. 

STATEMENT  BY  MR.  BAILEY  WILLIS. 

In  the  May  issue,  1909,  of  the  magazine  entitled  “Conservation,” 
page  2G2,  Mr.  Bailey  Willis  makes  the  statement: 

The  moisture  which  falls  upon  North  America  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow  comes 
chiefly  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  smaller  proportion,  rising  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  V/est  Indian  seas,  falls  upon  the  eastern  United  States. 

It  is  true  that  chart  B,  giving  the  normal  annual  precipitation 
indicates  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  furnishes  precipitation  that  is  heavy 
along  the  immediate  coast,  but  that  it  is  the  principal  source,  as  Mr 
Willis  says,  of  the  moisture  that  falls  upon  the  North  American  Con¬ 
tinent,  is  not  borne  out  by  the  facts  exhibited  by  the  precipitation 
chart  herein  produced  and  by  the  inflowing  currents  of  air  that  are 
shown  on  chart  A. 

The  range  of  mountains  on  the  Pacific  coast  intercepts  the  inflow 
of  the  vaporous  atmosphere,  which  is  comparatively  shallow,  and 
precipitates  its  aqueous  vapor  on  the  windward  side  of  the  range, 
and  mainly  on  the  north  half  of  the  windward  side,  because  storms 
seldom  enter  from  the  southern  half.  To  be  sure,  some  of  the  scant 
precipitation  that  falls  on  the  plateau  does  drift  over  the  tops  of 
these  mountains,  but  the  amount  is  small.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
Pacific  Ocean  has  little  influence  on  the  precipitation  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States,  which  fact  is  well  understood  by  meteorolo¬ 
gists;  and  I  believe  that  most  of  them  will  join  me  in  the  belief  that 
the  only  way  that  man  could  materially  affect  the  rainfall  of  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States  would  be  to  erect  a  mountain  barrier 


Chart  A.  Arrows  ily  with  the  wind  and  show  how  the  vaporous  atmosphere  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean  is  drawn  inland. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  21 


22  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

10,000  feet  high  skirting  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  coasts.  Of 
course  this  is  impossible,  but  if  nature  had  erected  it  there  would  be 
no  question  about  floods  in  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  rivers  and 
their  tributaries,  for  there  would  be  neither  rivers  nor  tributaries; 
just  as  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  rain  would  fall  on  the  ocean  side  of 
the  mountains,  and  the  world’s  greatest  granary  would  be  a  barren 
waste. 

Prof.  Frank  H.  Bigelow,  on  page  17  of  A  Manual  for  Observers  in 
Climatology  and  Evaporation,  says: 

All  this  distribution  of  the  general  circulating  currents,  and  the  consequent  pre¬ 
cipitation,  would  occur  whether  there  were  forests  or  not  growing  on  the  land  masses. 
It  may  be  proper  to  say  that  the  forests  follow  the  precipitation  and  do  not  precede  it. 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  action  of  the  sun  on  the 
waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  ocean  heavily  charge 
the  air  with  water  vapor,  and  that  this  vaporous  atmosphere  °is 
carried  inland  by  the  circulation  of  the  air  in  such  storms  as  are 
described  in  a  preceding  paragraph  and  illustrated  on  chart  A,  and 
that  the  effect  is  shown  on  chart  B  in  the  form  of  heavy  precipitation 
in  the  region  of  the  Gulf,  which  gradually  shades  away  toward  the 
Pocky  Mountains. 

It  is  therefore  apparent  that  the  precipitation  that  causes  floods 
in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  is  from  the  aqueous  vapor 
that  is  raised  up  from  the  vast  waters  to  the  south  and  southeast  of 
our  continent,  and  that  the  supply  is  inexhaustible .  Our  rainfall , 
then ,  is  the  result  of  such  fundamentally  great  causes  as  not  to  be  appre¬ 
ciably  affected  by  the  planting  or  cutting  away  of  forests ,  or  by  any  of 
the  operations  of  man  in  changing  the  character  of  the  surface  covering 
of  the  continent ,  although  to  statistically  and  positively  settle  the 
question  beyond  the  possibility  of  argument  it  would  be  necessary 
to  have  scientific  data  of  temperature,  rainfall,  and  the  height  of 
rivers,  beginning  at  the  first  settlement  of  the  continent  and  con¬ 
tinuing  through  to  the  present  time.  Such  records,  of  course,  are 
not  in  existence.  But  the  fundamental  fact  that  the  precipitation 
of  the  United  States  is  due  to  the  great  hemispherical  circulation  of 
the  air,  and  to  the  relation  of  the  great  bodies  of  water  to  land,  and 
the  direction  of  the  vaporous-bearing  currents,  and  the  trend  of 
mountain  systems  is  something  that  can  be  positively  shown. 

Mr.  Willis  further  says,  in  the  same  issue  of  Conservation,  page 
265,  that: 

The  mountains  are  wet  because  they  are  high,  and  they  are  heavily  forested  because 
they  are  wet.  But  there  is  also  a  reciprocal  action  of  the  forests  on  the  wetness,  for 
the  radiation  from  the  dark-green  expanse  is  comparatively  uniform  and  promotes 
frequent  and  steady  rains.  Were  the  mountains  bare  they  would,  like  the  bared 
sierras  of  Spain,  receive  occasional  but  violent  downpours  and  send  down  excessive 
and  disastrous  floods,  even  more  disastrous  than  now.  *  *  *  For  in  so  far  as  we 
clothe  the  surface  with  green  crops  we  lower  the  temperature  of  the  rising  air  and  favor 
precipitation  on  the  verdure-covered  plain. 

It  would,  be  difficult  to  either  confirm  or  disprove  this  statement 
of  Mr.  Willis.  Certain  it  is  that  the  rain  is  precipitated  largely  from 
air  masses  that  exist  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  that  the  influence  that  Mr.  Willis  describes  is  in  a 
thin  stratum  of  air  close  to  the  earth.  Barely  is  this  stratum  satu¬ 
rated,  even  during  the  fall  of  rain.  If,  then,  the  processes  that  he 
describes  do  not  bring  the  air  to  the  saturation  point,  and  if  the 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  23 


24  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

precipitation  occurs  in  the  regions  above  those  affected  by  these 
local  surface  conditions,  I  am  unable  to  see  how  the  rain  can  be 
either  increased  or  decreased  in  its  amount.  Certain  it  is  that  most 
of  the  leading  meteorologists  of  the  world  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
rainfall  on  continents  is  caused  by  the  fundamentally  great  operations 
of  nature  as  described  above. 


EROSION. 

Another  effect  of  deforestation,  that  of  erosion,  is  of  importance 
but  of  unequal  importance  in  different  sections.  In  level  countries 
it  makes  but  little  difference  in  this  particular  whether  the  ground 
is  waste,  cultivated,  o  *  densely  forested,  while  in  hilly  or  mountainous 
sections  the  result  is  different.  When  the  soil  becomes  well  sodded 
with  grass,  erosion  is  little  worse  in  fields  than  in  the  woods,  but 
usually  the  fields  are  cultivated  from  time  to  time,  and  occasions 
come  when  the  best  of  care  and  cultivation  can  not  prevent  the 
formation  of  bad  gullies  that  injure  both  the  gullied  fields  and  those 
of  the  lower  grounds  that  are  overflowed. 

Of  course,  though,  a  field  with  an  occasional  wash  yields  more 
food  material  than  the  same  area  covered  by  a  forest  of  any  kind, 
so  that  only  in  exceptional  cases — those  in  which  erosion  would 
probably  be  unavoidable  and  ruinous — is  this  a  sufficient  argument 
against  clearing  away  the  woods  and  the  planting  of  crops  in  their 
stead,  for  the  time  is  come  when  we  should  not  only  increase  the  yield 
jper  acre  by  wise  rotation  of  crops  on  cultivated  ground ,  but  clear  up  and 
seed  to  wheat,  corn,  grass,  and  fruits  millions  of  acres  that  now  tie  idle 
under  brush  or  forest.  In  other  words,  every  acre  that  will  grow  food 
for  the  people,,  and  thereby  reduce  its  cost  and  furnish  sustenance 
for  our  increasing  population  and  the  teeming  millions  that  are  on 
the  way  to  these  shores,  should  be  so  employed;  the  remainder  should 
grow  timber  that  should  be  protected  in  its  growth.  Man  and  beast 
love  the  cooling  shade,  and  the  eye  is  pleased  by  the  beauty  of  the 
wooded  landscape.  Therefore  begin  with  the  children  and  teach 
them  to  plant  trees  along  the  highways  and  byways  and  on  the  barren 
spots  that  will  not  produce  food.  Thus  may  we  approach  this  prob¬ 
lem  rationally,  with  the  object  of  gaining  the  greatest  good  for  the 
greatest  number  for  the  longest  period  of  time. 

RATIO  OF  THE  FORESTED  AREA,  OR  MOUNTAIN  WATERSHEDS,  TO  THE 

TOTAL  WATERSHED. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  not  enough  consideration  has  been  given 
to  the  relative  magnitude  of  the  areas  involved  in  the  creation  of 
floods.  A  flood  in  any  given  stream  is  usually  caused  by  the  pre¬ 
cipitation  oyer  its  entire  watershed  or  over  those  of  the  major  tribu¬ 
taries  and  is  affected  but  comparatively  little  in  a  region  like  that 
of  the  Ohio  basin  by  the  precipitation  over  the  extreme  upper  reaches, 
usually  the  forested  area,  or  any  other  area  that  could  be  reforested 
without  seriously  encroaching  upon  the  rich  alluvial  plains. 

A  critical  examination  of  Chart  C,  which  shows  the  entire  river 
system  of  the  Ohio  basin  and  gives  the  exact  limits  of  its  bound¬ 
aries,  and  which  also  indicates  the  elevations,  shows  what  a  compara¬ 
tively  small  area  in  relation  to  the  total  catchment  basin  lies  at 


26320 — 10.  (To  face  page  25.) 


26320 — 10.  (To  face  page  25.) 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  25 

elevations  of  more  than  1,000  or  1,500  feet  above  sea  level.  This 
chart  furnishes  a  conclusive  answer  to  those  who  believe  that  floods, 
except,  of  course,  torrents  in  the  mountain  creeks,  are  caused  by 
ujPreC^^a^on  on  comparatively  small  area  of  the  water¬ 
sheds  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers.  If  it  be  granted  that  forests 
control  the  flow  of  streams,  and  I  doubt  that  they  do  except  as 
stated  above,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  have  an  appreciable 
effect  on  navigable  or  other  important  rivers,  to  reforest  areas  many 
times  in  excess  of  anything  that  so  far  have  been  contemplated. 
lhe  rugged  mountain  slopes  and  tops,  where  land  has  little  value,  are 
unimportant  as  flood  producers.  It  will  be  necessary  actually  to  reforest 
the  slopes  and  valleys  where  the  land  is  of  great  value  and  where 
it  should  be  devoted  to  agricultural  purposes.  I  can  not  escape  this 
conclusion. 


ARE  FLOODS  INCREASING? 


Two  papers  have  recently  appeared,  in  both  of  which  the  argu- 
^  made  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency  toward  increasing 
flood  frequency  as  a  result  of  deforestation.  The  first  of  these 
papers  in  point  of  time  was  that  of  Mr.  M.  O.  Leighton,  Chief  Hy- 
drographer  United  States  Geological  Survey.®  The  second  paper 
appeared  in  volume  2,  Senate  Document  No.  676,  beginning  at 
page  112,  and  later  as  Forest  Service  Circular  No.  176,  January  11 
1910,  under  the  signatures  of  Mr.  William  L.  Hall,  Assistant  Forester, 
and  Mr.  Hu  Maxwell,  expert. 

Before  entering  upon  a  discussion  of  these  papers  I  wish  to  draw 
attention  to  the  following  statement  in  the  last-named  paper,  page  3 : 

*  *  B°th  Geological  Survey  and  the  Forest  Service  have  secured  data  & 
and  the  results  warrant  the  statement  that  unmistakably  floods  are  steadilv  on  the 
increase  in  some  of  our  most  important  rivers. 


*  wis£  to  remark  in  connection  with  this  statement  that  substan¬ 
tially  all  of  the  data  used  by  the  authors  of  the  papers  above  men¬ 
tioned  were  drawn  from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau.0 


In  Water-Supply  P aper  No.  234  the  author  has  made  a  diagrammatic 
arrangement  of  data  composed  of  annual  and  decennial  means, 
whereby  he  shows  an  apparent  progressive  increase  in  the  number 
ot  flood  days  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  and  other  points,  without  a  pro¬ 
portionate  m crease  in  the  amount  of  precipitation.  It  appears  to 
me  that  his  argument  is  defective  in  at  least  two  particulars. 

First.  The  flood  or  danger  stage  of  the  rivers  at  the  various  places 
discussed  by  him  was  long  ago  fixed  by  the  Weather  Bureau  as  being 
at  the  point  where  the  river  either  overflows  its  banks  or  damages 
property  adjacent  thereto.  Mr.  Leighton  has  disregarded  these 
points  and  arbitrarily  assumed,  for  the  purpose  of  his  discussion,  a 


and  Water-Supply  Paper 


a  Report  of  National  Conservation  Commission,  p  95 

No.  234.  * 

b  The  italics  are  mine.  (Author.) 

cIn  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234  the  impression  seems  to  be  given  that  the  author’s 
esearches  and  conclusions  are  based  on  a  consideration  of  river  discharge  measure¬ 
ments.  It  is  proper  to  state  that  river  discharge  measurements  were  begun  under  the 
direction  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1896  and  that  gauge  readings  of 

heights  of  rivers  were  begun  by  the  United  States  Signal  Service,  now  Weather  Bureau, 
m  lo / 4.  y 


26  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

considerably  lower  stage  in  each  case,  so  that  his  argument  fails 
completely  so  far  as  it  relates  to  flood  frequency;  for  example,  at 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  he  assumes  a  stage  of  20  feet,  whereas  the  Ohio 
at  that  point  is  not  in  flood  until  a  stage  of  36  feet  is  reached.  What 
the  author  is  discussing  is  therefore  not  floods  as  such,  but  moderate 
stages  of  the  river. 

What  appears  to  me  to  be  a  second  defect  in  the  author’s  argument 
lies  in  his  acceptance  of  the  total  number  of  so-called  flood  days 
(20  feet  or  more  being  a  day  of  flood)  divided  by  the  annual  pre¬ 
cipitation  as  an  indication  of  flood  intensity,  since  the  annual  rain¬ 
fall,  as  he  himself  acknowledges,®  bears  little  or  no  relation  to  floods. 
Greater  floods  may  occur  during  a  year  of  deficient  precipitation 
than  during  one  of  excessive  annual  precipitation  if  the  proper  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  rainfall  be  concentrated  over  a  limited  area  m  a 
limited  time. 

An  examination  of  the  data  for  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  given  by  that 
author,  discloses  the  fact  that  there  has  not  been  any  increase  in  the 
number  of  so-called  flood  days  at  that  place.  The  average  amount 
of  precipitation  for  each  daily  river  stage  of  20  feet  or  more,  as  de¬ 
termined  by  him,  is  almost  exactly  the  same  for  the  two  periods, 
1884  to  1895  and  1896  to  1907,  inclusive.  But  in  the  number  of 
actual  flood  days,  as  determined  by  Professor  Frankenfield,  the 
official  in  charge  of  the  Weather  Bureau  river  and  flood  service, 
that  is,  33  feet  or  over  (and  the  river  does  not  reach  the  danger  or 
flood  stage  until  it  stands  33  feet  above  low  water),  there  was  a 
considerable  decrease  in  the  second  period,  in  harmony  with  the 
precipitation. 

I  understand  that  when  Mr.  Leighton  speaks  of  "the  ratio  of  the 
annual  number  of  days  of  flood  to  annual  precipitation,”  he  means 
the  number  of  days  (stage  above  20  feet)  in  each  year  divided  by  the 
total  precipitation  for  the  year.  Thus,  if  the  number  of  flood  days  in 
any  one  year  is  20,  and  the  total  precipitation  is  40  inches,  the  ratio 
would  be  20  divided  by  40,  or  0.5.  These  ratios  are  totaled  in 
eleven-year  periods  and  the  average  of  each  period  obtained.  The 
average  for  the  first  eleven  years,  as  obtained  by  him,  was  0.38,  and 
of  the  second,  0.48,  indicating,  in  his  opinion,  an  increase  in  flood 
intensit}?'  during  the  second  eleven-year  period,  as  1  inch  of  rain 
made  onlv  0.38  of  a  flood  during  the  first  period,  while  in  the  second 
period  1  inch  of  rain  made  0.48  of  a  flood.  In  other  words,  during 
the  first  eleven-}rear  period  1  inch  of  rain  made  only  38  per  cent  of 
20  feet  of  water,  or  7.6  feet;  while  during  the  second  period  1  inch 
of  rain  made  48  per  cent  of  20  feet  of  water,  or  9.6  feet. 

This  line  of  reasoning  leads  to  wrong  conclusions,  as  it  is  certain 
that  the  ratios  obtained  by  dividing  the  number  of  days  that  a  cer¬ 
tain  gage  reading  was  reached  or  maintained  by  the  annual,  or  for 
that  matter  by  any  other,  precipitation,  without  entering  into  the 
problem  the  exact  height  of  water  gives  a  meaningless  result.  It 
appears  to  me  to  be  a  fatal  method  of  reasoning  to  take  simply  the 
number  of  days  that  a  stage  of  20  feet  was  reached,  without  regard 
to  heights  above  20  feet.  Therefore,  if  on  a  certain  number  of  days 
the  gage  reading  was  exactlv  20  feet,  one  would  get  precisely  the 
same  quotient  as  he  would  if  on  the  same  number  of  days  the  gage 
readings  were  largely  in  excess  of  20  feet. 


a  Page  22,  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  27 

I  now  come  to  that  part  of  the  discussion  in  Water-Supply  Paper 
No.  234  which  has  been  widely  quoted  by  the  adherents  of  the  forest- 
control  idea,  viz,  the  proposition  that,  although  the  flood  periods  in 
the  Tennessee  have  decreased  in  later  years  due  to  diminished  pre¬ 
cipitation,  the  flood  tendencies  have  increased.  This  idea,  like 
others  that  have  been  put  forward  in  this  connection,  is  important 
if  it  can  be  substantiated;  and  if  it  is  proven,  then  it  is  incumbent 
upon  the  author  of  that  paper  to  show  that  the  increase  is  due  to 
deforestation,  which  he  does  not  do.  I  have  no  data  as  to  the  area 
that  has  been  cleared  or  that  has  been  allowed  to  revert  to  forests, 
but  it  can  not  be  great  in  twelve  years. 

This  whole  matter  of  the  influence  of  forests  upon  climate  and 
floods  is  so  important  to  the  nation  in  planning  a  correct  economic 
policy  for  the  future  that  we  should  move  cautiously  and  be  sure 
that  we  are  building  safely  and  wisely.  I  am  heart  and  soul  with 
the  noble  men  and  women  who,  as  individuals  or  collectively,  are 
striving  to  protect  and  conserve  in  the  interests  of  the  whole  people 
the  nation’s  resources  of  forest  and  field  and  of  minerals  and  water 
power,  and  in  this  opinion  I  am  generally  and  strongly  sustained  by 
the  scientific  staff  of  the  Weather  Bureau. 

With  regard  to  the  matters  of  which  this  paper  specifically  treats  I 
wish  for  the  freest,  fullest,  and  fairest  discussion  and  investigation, 
with  the  end  in  view  of  correcting  error  if  there  be  such  and  of  finding 
common  ground  upon  which  all  well-meaning  persons  may  stand. 
Those  whose  official  reports  differ  from  mine  I  believe  to  be  as  honest 
and  as  sincere  in  their  investigations  and  conclusions  as  I  know 
myself  to  be. 

To  return  to  Supply  Paper  No.  234,  referred  to  above’,  I  quote  as 
follows  from  page  23 : 


The  results  for  the  Tennessee  basin  cover  twenty-four  years,  from  1884  to  1907, 
inclusive.  *  *  *  Summing  up  the  flood-producing  rains  for  the  twenty-four  year 
period,  it  is  found  that  the  total  is  335,  of  which  313  occurred  from  December  to  May, 
inclusive,  and  the  remaining  22  during  the  other  portion  of  the  year.  It  is  apparent 
that  the  number  of  such  rains  from  June  to  November  is  not  sufficient  to  afford  a  basis 
of  comparison.  Therefore  only  the  December  to  May  floods  will  be  considered.  *  *  * 
On  dividing  the  period  covered  by  these  313  floods  equally,  two  consecutive  twelve- 
year  periods  are  afforded,  which  give  a  basis  of  comparison.  The  floods  in  the  later 
period,  resulting  from  a  given  depth  of  storm  precipitation,  are  clearly  shown  to  be 
more  severe  than  in  the  earlier  period.  The  method  of  presentation  further  makes  it 
possible  to  compute  the  increase  in  flood  tendency  due  to  deforestation  in  the  Ten¬ 
nessee. 

******* 

If  we  now  divide  the  number  of  flood  days  by  the  number  of  storms  the  result  will 
be  the  number  of  days  per  storm. 

Days  of  flood  per  storm. 


Period. 

Storms  in  inches  precipitated. 

1  to  1.5. 

1.5  to  2. 

2  to  2.5. 

2.5  to  3. 

3  to  3.5. 

3.5  to  4. 

4  to  4.5. 

4.5  to  5. 

1884-1895 . 

0.7 

0.5 

2.5 

1.8 

2.6 

5 

6 

8. 1 

1896-1907 . 

.4 

.9 

2.6 

2.7 

3.2 

6 

8 

6.7 

Percentage  increase . 

-  43 

80 

4 

50 

22 

20 

33 

-  17 

The  algebraic  sum  of  the  above  percentages  is  149  and  the  average  is  18.75,  which 
sums  up  the  effects  of  deforestation  on  run-off  from  1884  to  1907,  inclusive. 


28  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

I  invite  attention  to  the  figures  given  in  this  table  “Days  of  flood 
per  storm.”  If  the  run-off  in  the  second  period  was  greater  than  in 
the  first,  due  to  deforestation,  would  not  the  latter  show  a  uniform 
and  progressive  influence  increasing  as  the  amount  of  rainfall  in¬ 
creased?  How,  then,  does  it  happen  that  a  decrease  in  run-off  of  43 
per  cent  is  shown  for  rains  of  intensity  1  inch  to  1.5  inches,  while  in 
the  next  higher  grade  of  intensity,  viz,  1.5  to  2  inches,  an  increase 
of  80  per  cent  is  shown?  In  the  next  higher  grade,  viz,  2  to  2.5  inches, 
the  increase  drops  to  4  per  cent.  These  results  founded,  in  ray  judg¬ 
ment,  on  incorrect  premises,  are  both  inconsistent  and  meaningless. 
To  “ divide  the  number  of  flood  days  by  the  number  of  storms”  gives 
no  valuable  quotient,  for  the  gage  readings  selected  as  floods  are 
not  floods,  but  only  moderate  stages,  and  no  account  is  taken  of  the 
actual  height  of  the  water,  and  while  the  conclusion  is  reached  that 
there  is  an  increase  in  flood  intensity  of  18.75  per  cent  in  the  Tennes¬ 
see  basin  in  the  past  twelve  years  due  to  deforestation,  no  records  or 
other  evidence  are  presented  that  there  is  not  as  much  forest  area  in 
this  basin  as  there  was  twelve  years  ago;  or  that,  if  there  is  a  decrease, 
it  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  such  a  large  increase  in  flood 
intensity. 

But — and  here  is  the  most  important  matter  in  the  consideration 
of  Mr.  Leighton’s  conclusions — no  matter  how  complete  the  data 
may  be,  or  how  fundamentally  sound  and  fair  its  collation  and  group¬ 
ing,  the  comparison,  the  one  with  the  other,  of  such  short  periods  as 
those  measured  by  only  twelve  years,  can  not  give  results  with  regard 
to  changes  in  climate  and  floods  that  will  permit  the  most  skilled  mete¬ 
orologist  or  engineer  to  draw  fundamental  conclusions  that  can  have 
any  value.  Precisely  the  same  amount  of  rain  falling  in  the  two 
periods  and  no  change  whatever  in  forest  or  cultivated  area  might 
produce  largely  differing  results  on  floods,  depending  on  the  sequence 
with  which  it  fell  over  the  different  tributaries  and  how  it  was  con¬ 
centrated  or  scattered,  and  on  many  other  complicated  conditions 
of  run-off,  such  as  the  coinciding  of  the  flood  volume  from  one  tribu¬ 
tary  with  that  of  another,  instead  of  each  passing  down  the  main 
stream  at  different  times. 

There  is  also  the  difficulty  of  securing  accurate  precipitation  data. 
Whenever  the  height  of  the  gage  is  altered  or  other  change  made 
in  its  environment  that  disturbs  the  flow  of  the  air  currents  the  read¬ 
ings  of  one  period  may  not  fairly  be  compared  the  one  with  the  other. 
These  defects  vitiate  the  precipitation  data  of  many  stations  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  especially  those  in  large  and  growing  cities,  and 
can  only  be  remedied  by  the  Government  controlling  for  a  long  period 
of  years  an  area  at  each  station  so  large  that  it  can  determine  the 
exposure  and  keep  it  constant. 

Another  way  of  comparing  the  precipitation  and  the  river  stages  of 
the  Tennessee  basins. — I  give  in  the  following  table  the  rainfall  at 
Chattanooga  and  Knoxville  separately  for  the  months  December  to 
May,  inclusive,  for  each  of  the  twenty-four  years  considered  in 
Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234;  also  the  total  number  of  days  of  river 
stages  of  20  feet  and  above  on  the  Chattanooga  gage.  The  rainfall 
so  tabulated  includes  only  the  heavy  rains,  and  the  arrangement 
according  to  intensity  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  followed  inW  ater- 
Supply  Paper  No.  234. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


29 


Heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga  and  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  during  six  months  of  each  year 

(December,  1883,  to  May,  1907). 


December-May,  1883-1907. 


First  half: 

Chattanooga . 
Knoxville. . . 


Total . 
Mean. 


Second  half: 
Chattanooga. 
Knoxville . . . 


Total. 

Mean. 


1  to  1.5  inches. 


Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 


57 

44 


101 


Total 

amount. 


68.65 

51.01 


52 

48 


100 


119. 66 


62.  48 
55.87 


1.5  to  2  inches. 


Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 


16 

26 


Total 

amount. 


2  to  2.5  inches. 


Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 


42 


11 

21 


118. 35 


32 


27.54 

45.59 


8 

13 


73.13 


21 


18. 18 
35.47 


12 

10 


53.65 


22 


Total 

amount. 


17.83 
29.  44 


47.27 


2.5  to  3  inches. 


Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 


Total 

amount. 


13 

4 


17 


26. 28 
22.19 


48.  47 


9 

10 


19 


35.67 

11.04 


46.71 


24. 13 
27.48 


51.61 


December-May, 

1883-1907. 

3  to  3.5  inches. 

3.5  to  4  inches. 

4  to  4.5  inches. 

4.5  +  inches. 

* 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
rains. 

Total 

amount. 

Grand 

total. 

First  half: 

Chattanooga . 

4 

13.45 
12. 70 

4 

15.07 
3. 78 

o 

8. 58 
8. 79 

33. 43 
22.04 

220.22 

Knoxville  7 . 

4 

1 

9 

o 

L 

4 

184. 39 

Total . 

8 

26. 15 

K 

18.85 

A 

17. 37 

10 

55.47 

404. 61 
202.30 

Mean . 

4 

Second  half: 

Chattanooga . 

4 

13.  41 
16.17 

2 

7.71 

7. 46 

9 

8. 38 

23. 27 

183.84 

164.64 

Knoxville  T . 

5 

2 

4 

Total . 

9 

29.58 

4 

15. 17 

2 

8. 38 

23.27 

348. 48 

-  Mean . 

4 

1/4.  Z4 

The  data  of  the  above  table  have  been  divided  into  two  periods  of 
twelve  years  each,  with  the  following  results: 

First  period. 

Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga .  HO 

Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Knoxville .  .  200 


Total. 


210 


Total  amount  of  the  above  heavy  rains  as  per  table,  404.61  inches. 

Dividing  this  total  by  two,  to  get  the  approximate  average  of  the  heavv  rains  for 
the  watershed,  we  get  202.30  inches.  y 

Total  number  of  days  with  stages  of  20  feet  or  more  at  Chattanooga .  166 

Dividing  the  amount  of  the  heavy  rains  in  the  watershed  by  the  number  of  days 

with  a  river  stage  of  20  feet  or  over,  we  get  ^|^?=1.220  inches  as  the  amount  of  rain- 


166 


fall  that  probably  produced  one  day  of  a  stage  of  water  in  the  river  of  20  feet 


or  more. 


30  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

Second  -period. 


Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Chattanooga .  #  96 

Total  number  of  heavy  rains  at  Knoxville .  96 

Total .  192 

Total  amount  of  the  above  heavy  rains,  348.48  inches. 

Dividing  this  total  as  before,  we  get  as  an  approximate  average  of  the  heavy  rains 
in  the  watershed  174.24  inches. 

Total  number  of  days  with  stages  of  20  feet  or  over  in  the  river .  141 


Dividing  as  before,  we  get  as  the  probable  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  second  period 
required  to  produce  a  day  of  20  feet  or  over  in  the  river,  1.236  inches,  as  against  1.220 
inches  in  the  first  period. 

The  difference  between  the  line  of  reasoning  employed  in  getting 
the  above  results  and  those  given  in  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  234  is 
that  the  author  of  the  latter  attempts  to  differentiate  between  the 
stages  produced  by  rains  of  varying  intensity  and  to  assign  to  such 
rains  a  given  number  of  so-called  “  flood  days,”  while  in  this  paper  the 
assertion  is  made  that  in  the  first  period  there  were  a  given  number 
of  days  with  a  stage  of  20  feet  and  over  in  the  river,  and  that  during 
that  time  the  heavy  or  flood-producing  rains  amounted  to  so  much. 
Dividing,  then,  the  total  of  the  flood-producing  rains  by  the  corre¬ 
sponding  number  of  days  with  a  stage  of  20  feet  or  over,  the  results 
given  above  are  reached,  viz,  that  for  the  first  period  it  took  1.22 
inches  of  rainfall  to  produce  a  day  with  a  20-foot  stage  in  the  river. 
These  figures  contradict  the  contention  that  an  equal  depth  of  rain 
in  the  last  period  as  compared  with  the  first  produced  more  severe 
floods  in  the  river.  I  only  present  them  to  show  how  easy  it  is  to 
arrange  data  so  as  to  prove  both  sides  to  a  question.  While  this 
line  of  inquiry  is  open  to  less  objection  than  that  followed  by  Leigh¬ 
ton,  it  does  conform  to  the  plan  of  the  latter  in  so  far  as  it  uses  the 
number  of  days  that  the  river  stood  at  or  above  20  feet,  instead  of 
taking  into  consideration  the  actual  height  of  the  water.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  is  that  this  form  of  inquiry  shows  no  increase  in 
flood  intensity. 

Rainfall  and  run-off  of  the  Ohio  Basin. — We  now  come  to  a  different 
and  more  reliable  form  of  investigating  this  question  of  the  relation 
of  precipitation  to  run-off. 

We  have  no  direct  method  of  measuring  the  run-off,  but  we  can 
reach  a  fair  approximation  to  it  by  a  comparison  of  the  rainfall  and 
river  data  for  any  given  watershed.  If,  for  example,  the  surface 
conditions  over  any  considerable  part  of  a  watershed  have  been 
materially  changed  by  deforestation  or  other  means,  and  if,  as 
claimed,  such  change  operates  to  increase  the  run-off,  then  the  flow  of 
water  in  the  streams  after  the  change  has  been  brought  about  should 
be  greater  for  equal  depth  of  precipitation.  This  method  is  a  rough 
one,  to  be  sure,  but  it  appears  to  be  the  only  one  permitted  by  the 
records  as  they  exist 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  has  been  chosen  as  the  point  whose  river  observa¬ 
tions  are  best  adapted  to  our  purpose,  although  some  objection  to 
that  place  lies  in  the  constriction  or  the  natural  river  channel  caused 
by  the  encroachment  on  the  banks  of  the  stream  by  various  artificial 
structures.  The  station  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  is  better  situated  for 
comparative  purposes,  but  the  low- water  stages  at  that  place  of 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  31 

late  years  have  been  vitiated  by  the  construction  of  the  Davis 
Island  dam.  The  construction  of  dams  at  several  places  in  other 
rivers  has  lowered  the  value  of  low  river  gauge  readings  for  comparative 
purposes. 

In  the  tables  which  follow  I  have  given  the  actual  mean  monthly 
stage  of  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati  for  every  month  of  the  period  1871 
to  1908.  The  average  of. these  monthly  means  has  been  computed 
for  the  first  period  of  nineteen  years;  these  averages  have  been 
summed  up  for  the  twelve  months  of  the  year,  and- that  sum  has 
been  divided  by  twelve  in  order  to  get  the  annual  mean.  The  number 
so  obtained,.  17.3  feet,  is  therefore  the  average  stage  of  the  river  for 
the  entire  nineteen  years,  as  computed  from  all  of  the  daily  stages 
for  that  period.  In  like  manner  the  average  stage  of  the  river  for 
the  second  period  of  years  has  been  computed  and  is  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Mean  monthly  and  annual  river  stages  in  the  Ohio  River  at  Cincinnati ,  Ohio,  for  the 

period  1871-1908. 


[In  feet  and  tenths.] 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Annual. 

1871 . 

14.6 

23.1 

25.3 

16.5 

21.8 

8.2 

7.1 

5.1 

5.4 

3.2 

6.5 

7.3 

1872 . 

14.0 

14.1 

13.3 

25.8 

11.8 

10.9 

11.9 

8.4 

5.1 

4.2 

10.0 

10.5 

1873 . 

22.6 

29.4 

21.4 

29.2 

25.6 

9.  2 

13. 3 

10  0 

6  6 

7  3 

I1!  ft 

9ft  A 

1874 . 

29.7 

27.9 

25.7 

31.6 

20.7 

7.8 

6.1 

9.0 

4.2 

5.4 

4.6 

13.4 

1875 . 

18.3 

16.7 

34.4 

23.9 

14.7 

11.8 

25.0 

26.  7 

5. 1 

7.4 

15  9 

24  3 

1876 . 

31.4 

33.9 

25.6 

25.4 

18.2 

10.1 

11.8 

10.6 

16.8 

10.7 

11.7 

12. 1 

1877 . 

28.1 

18.4 

28.0 

23.1 

17.4 

12.1 

11.3 

5.5 

6.2 

5.1 

12. 1 

15.1 

1878 . 

20.0 

24.2 

24.2 

14.5 

22.0 

12.5 

9.0 

10.6 

13.7 

6.0 

14.8 

29. 1 

1879 . 

23.2 

26.6 

32.8 

22.9 

11.4 

7.1 

5.6 

9.9 

6.9 

3.2 

5.4 

19.2 

1880 . 

29.2 

28.3 

35.2 

24.6 

15.8 

14.0 

9.4 

8.4 

7.0 

4.6 

10.4 

18.1 

1881 . 

20.7 

33.1 

27.2 

29.4 

16.1 

16.5 

7.8 

4.9 

3.6 

4.4 

14.8 

25.0 

1882 . 

42.0 

44.0 

34.2 

18.2 

30.6 

26.5 

16.9 

13.7 

13.9 

9.0 

8.7 

12.7 

1883 . 

18.1 

48.6 

20.3 

36.0 

49.0 

61.5 

12.9 

8.7 

4.4 

7.9 

38.0 

32.2 

• 

1884 . 

24.5 

54.4 

36.5 

24.5 

17.5 

11.3 

8.5 

6.5 

3.6 

3.9 

4.4 

12.2 

1885 . 

25.6 

15.6 

17.1 

26.5 

15.0 

14.7 

6.8 

12.5 

11.0 

8.5 

15.5 

18. 1 

1886 . 

24.7 

26.0 

20.6 

37.4 

22.0 

15.5 

13.8 

10.0 

5.4 

5.2 

12.2 

19.4 

1887 . 

20.4 

48.4 

29.4 

24.0 

20.6 

14.8 

5.7 

4.9 

3.3 

3.3 

3.6 

6. 1 

1888 . 

20.2 

20.1 

23.0 

23.8 

13.8 

10.4 

14.6 

12.1 

16.4 

17.9 

27.4 

16.2 

1889 . 

25.2 

24.1 

20.9 

19.0 

16.0 

25.2 

18.5 

12.2 

6.7 

8.0 

24.6 

23.9 

1890 . 

33.0 

37.9 

46.0 

31.7 

32.5 

19.8 

10.8 

9.7 

20.8 

21.2 

24.2 

17.3 

1891 _ ........ 

31.8 

46.8 

37.2 

30.6 

9.8 

18.9 

13.0 

11.2 

9.  7 

4.9 

9.6 

18.9 

1892 . 

23.8 

24.5 

25.4 

31.5 

25.2 

23.1 

11.6 

7.7 

5.7 

4.3 

6.4 

11. 1 

1893 . 

12.7 

41.1 

25.8 

26.8 

36.1 

14.9 

8.3 

4.8 

7.2 

10.5 

9.5 

16.  5 

1894 . 

17.3 

27.2 

22.6 

19.1 

16.9 

12.3 

5.6 

4.3 

4.8 

4.6 

6.6 

12.0 

1895 . 

28.3 

13.9 

27.4 

24.4 

12.3 

6.5 

7.5 

6.1 

4.9 

3.0 

3.  4 

9.  4 

1896 . 

14.1 

23.6 

22.5 

26.1 

12.3 

11.7 

22.1 

20.1 

6.7 

14.8 

13.8 

19.7 

1897 . 

14.4 

36.3 

40.3 

26.3 

23.1 

12.8 

13.9 

10.3 

4.8 

3.5 

8.0 

17.8 

1898 . 

35.3 

25.0 

31.3 

27.1 

23.7 

11.7 

8.6 

20.2 

7.7 

10.1 

17.1 

18.7 

1899 . 

31.8 

25.9 

40.1 

26.7 

17.4 

13.6 

8.4 

8.0 

5.1 

3.  9 

6.4 

13.  4 

1900 . 

18.7 

24.5 

28.9 

17.8 

11.2 

10.8 

9.5 

7.9 

5.0 

4.3 

10.3 

19.2 

1901 . . 

15.8 

13.8 

22.2 

39.5 

25.5 

28.1 

13.1 

9.6 

10.9 

6.4 

5.6 

20.6 

1902 . 

19.9 

19.2 

37.2 

26.7 

13.6 

11.0 

19.4 

9.9 

4.4 

7.6 

6.3 

26.9 

1903 . 

23.1 

39.7 

42.5 

32.9 

12.0 

13.5 

12.7 

6.7 

8.2 

6.6 

7.3 

9.  6 

1904 . 

19.4 

20.3 

34.6 

26.6 

20.1 

16.2 

13.5 

6.3 

5.0 

3.8 

4.2 

4.  6 

1905 . 

14.9 

21.4 

33.3 

19.7 

25.2 

16.3 

15.8 

12.9 

10.2 

10.8 

12.0 

25.6 

1906 . 

26.8 

13.9 

26.3 

30.3 

14.3 

12.5 

10.1 

14.4 

10.1 

13.3 

15.8 

23.3 

1907 . 

45.  7 

22.0 

40.1 

23.9 

22.5 

27.2 

18.3 

13.5 

12.1 

10.6 

17.0 

19.4 

1908 . 

Mean: 

22.0 

32.2 

41.9 

35.8 

30.8 

12.9 

10.0 

8.6 

4.4 

3.6 

4.8 

5.2 

1871-1889 _ 

23.8 

29.3 

26.1 

25.1 

20.0 

15.8 

11.4 

10.0 

7.6 

6.6 

13.5 

18. 1 

17.3 

1890—1908 « o . . 

23.6 

26.8 

32.9 

27.6 

20.2 

15.5 

12.2 

10.1 

7.8 

7.8 

9.9 

16.3 

17.6 

1871-1908 _ 

23.7 

28.1 

29.5 

26.3 

20.1 

15.6 

11.8 

10.0 

7.7 

7.2 

11.7 

17.2 

17.4 

The  average  precipitation  for  the  watershed  has  not  been  so  easily 
obtained.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  are  continuous  measurements  of 
precipitation  available  for  comparative  studies.  The  government 
records  in  large  cities  are  of  necessity  made  from  gauges  whose  imme- 


32  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FOKESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 


diate  environment  has  been  changed  repeatedly  in  the  course  of  a  long 
series  of  years,  and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  rain-gauge  records 
from  Cincinnati  and  Pittsburg  were  ignored.  The  points  selected — 
viz,  North  Lewisburg  and  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  and  Confluence  and 
Franklin,  Pa.— are  the  best  and  practically  the  only  long-period  rec¬ 
ords  available  in  this  watershed.  A  better  distribution  throughout 
the  watershed  would  have  been  preferred,  but  it  is  not  possible  to 
obtain  it.  The  precipitation,  like  the  river  stages,  has  been  computed 
in  periods  of  nineteen  years  each.  The  tables  follow: 


Annual  precipitation  in  the  Ohio  watershed  for  the  period  1871  to  1908 ,  inclusive. 


[In  inches  and  tenths.] 


Year. 


1871  . 

1872  . 

1873  . 

1874  . 

1875  . 

1876  . 

1877  . 

1878  . 

1879  . 

1880  . 

1881 . 

1882 . 

1883  . . 

1884  . . 

1885  . . 

1886  . . 

1887  . . 

1888  . . 

1889  . . 

1890  . 

1891  . 

1892  . 

1893  . 

1894  . 

1895  . 

1896  . . 

1897  . 

1898  . 

1899  . 

1900  . 

1901  . 

1902  . 

1903  . 

1904  . 

1905  . 

1906  . 

1907  . 

1908  . 

Mean: 

1871-1889 . 

1890-1908 . 

Mean  for  entire  period 


North  Lew¬ 
isburg, 
Ohio. 

Ports¬ 

mouth, 

Ohio. 

Confluence, 

Pa. 

Franklin, 

Pa. 

For  the 
watershed. 

30.6 

30.7 

a  27.7 

34  7 

-  28.6 

31.1 

o  31.  0 

41.5 

37.2 

46.2 

o41.4 

54  9 

34  0 

38.3 

o39.4 

47.4 

43.2 

45.7 

39.1 

45.8 

42.0 

41.2 

46.4 

46.9 

37.3 

35.0 

45.0 

4a  5 

44.0 

29.9 

41.1 

40. 1 

48.4 

35.6 

38.8 

37.7 

46.4 

49.0 

49.2 

34  0 

44.0 

40.8 

41.4 

39.1 

45.8 

56.2 

55. 1 

45.8 

48.9 

48.  5 

49.8 

41.3 

34  3 

42.3 

42.1 

42.0 

38.8 

37.3 

39.3 

446 

40.6 

45.3 

44  1 

38.8 

35.0 

40.  7 

b  31.  2 

40.8 

47.6 

48.3 

b  47.3 

49.2 

30.8 

39.3 

40.0 

43.8 

45.2 

57.6 

60.1 

sas 

44.2 

42.8 

57.5 

c  51.  4 

40.2 

44  1 

38.4 

C47.6 

49.1 

37.9 

43.4 

C4a7 

39.6 

36.2 

42.  1 

C4a3 

29.0 

31.2 

35.1 

C33.5 

48.3 

39.9 

50.2 

C41.  2 

43.5 

49. 1 

45.8 

39.6 

52.2 

48. 1 

53.2 

39.1 

34  0 

42.9 

48.9 

32.8 

32.5 

34  6 

44  0 

31.7 

29.6 

39.7 

41.2 

42.  2 

36.6 

37.2 

45.9 

39.1 

28.7 

37.3 

38.3 

45.6 

35.4 

29.2 

31.4 

40.8 

ci  35. 1 

43.3 

51.1 

4a  1 

d  33.7 

44  4 

4a  7 

<40.  2 

d  37.  6 

42.3 

55.8 

<42.3 

30.1 

40.0 

42. 1 

<41. 1 

39.8 

41.1 

41.5 

42.7 

4L3 

3a  1 

40.9 

46.0 

42.3 

41.8 

39.0 

41.0 

4a  8 

42.5 

4L6 

a  Record  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.  d  Record  °*  Columbus,  Ohio. 

b  Record  of  Lock  No.  4,  Pennsylvania.  e  Record  of  Parkers,  1  a. 

c  Record  of  Warren,  Pa. 


Summarizing  the  above,  we  have: 

Average  stage  of  the  Ohio  River  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio: 

1871  to  1889 . 

1890  to  1908 . 

Average  precipitation  in  the  Ohio  watershed,  as  determined  from  the  stations  above  named: 

1871  to  1889 . 

1890  to  1908 . 


Feet. 
..  17.3 
..  17.5 

Inches. 
...  41.3 
...  41.8 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  33 

I  consider  that  the  results  secured  from  the  discussion  of  the 
precipitation  and  the  gauge  readings  in  the  Ohio  basin,  as  given  in  the 
foregoing  tables,  form  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  made 
by  this  paper.  Here  we  have  avoided  the  using  of  indefinite  and 
meaningless  data,  and  have  taken  the  longest  period  of  time  for 
which  accurate  records  can  be  secured  on  a  watershed  that  is  suitable 
for  this  line  of  inquiry.  We  have  not  simply  counted  the  number  of 
days  that  the  river  stood  above  some  arbitrarily  selected  stage  with¬ 
out  taking  into  consideration  the  exact  height  of  the  river.  Neither 
have  we  divided  the  gauge  readings  by  some  arbitrarily  selected 
portion  of  precipitation  data.  On  the  contrary,  we  have  endeavored 
to  profit  by  the  errors  of  previous  investigations,  and  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  an  inquiry  that  would  mean  something  when  we  reached 
the  end  of  our  computations.  For  this  reason  we  have  selected  a 
typical  station  on  the  main  stream  that  drains  the  Ohio  Basin  and 
have  discussed  rainfall  data  that  are  the  most  accurate  of  any  in  the 
region,  having  been  subject  to  less  errors  due  to  varying  environ¬ 
ments.  Any  deductions  made  from  an  inquiry  founded  with  less 
care,  or  from  data  of  a  less  degree  of  accuracy,  must  bring  results 
from  which  it  would  be  unsafe  to  form  definite  conclusions. 

Now  let  us  see  what  is  the  result.  The  average  stage  of  the  river 
for  the  first  nineteen  years  is  17.3  feet,  and  for  the  last  nineteen 
years  17.5  feet,  showing  that  there  is  practically  no  change  in  the 
run-off  of  the  Ohio  Basin  between  the  first  period  and  the  last. 
When  we  examine  the  average  precipitation  over  the  watershed  that 
is  drained  by  this  river  we  find  that  for  the  first  nineteen  years  it  was 
41.3  inches,  and  for  the  last  nineteen-year  period  it  was  41.8  inches, 
a  slight  increase  in  precipitation  for  the  latter  period  that  agrees 
precisely  with  the  slightly  greater  average  flow  of  water.  There  is  a 
perfect  agreement  here  between  the  precipitation  and  the  flow  of 
the  stream.  I  do  not  know  what  has  been  the  area  deforested  in 
this  valley  during  the  thirty-eight  years  under  discussion,  but  whatever 
it  is  it  seems  to  be  apparent  that  such  altering  of  the  relation  of  forest 
area  to  cultivated  area  has  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  flow  of  the 
Ohio  River.  I  am  aware  of  the  fact  that  by  the  studying  of  short 
periods  of  data  on  small  tributary  streams,  and  especially  by  the 
grouping  of  data  dissimilar  from  what  is  employed  in  this  discussion, 
all  manner  of  results  may  be  shown. 

1  believe  that  the  reader  will  acknowledge  that  I  have  shown  in  the 
several  'preceding  paragraphs  that  the  average  discharge  of  the  Ohio 
River ,  where  I  presume  deforestation  has  been  as  great  as  in  any  other 
part  of  the  country  during  recent  time ,  has  not  changed  for  a  period  of 
thirty-eight  years ,  except  as  caused  by  precipitation.  It  will  now  be  inter¬ 
esting  to  know  how  the  two  periods  compare  with  regard  to  extremely  high 
water  and  extremely  low  water,  and  this  will  be  discussed  in  the  cominq 
pages. 

High  water  and  low  water  on  the  rivers  of  the  Ohio  basin. — I  had  Prof. 
H.  C.  Frankenfield,  Chief  of  the  River  and  Flood  Division  of  the 
Weather  Bureau,  compile  the  data  from  one  station  on  the  Cumber¬ 
land,  three  on  the  Tennessee,  and  five  on  the  Ohio,  and  establish  the 
average  high  water  for  the  four  wet  months,  January  to  April,  and  the 
average  low  water  for  the  four  dry  months,  July  to  October.  He  then 


26320—10 - 3 


34  TIIE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

took  the  departure  from  the  normal,  both  for  the  precipitation  and  for 
the  height  of  the  rivers,  and  found  that  the  average  high  water  was  no 
higher  and  the  average  low  water  was  no  lower  for  the  last  half  of  the 
period  than  for  the  first  half.  The  differences  were  so  slight  as  to  be 
inappreciable,  but  what  changes  occurred  were  in  favor  of  the  low 
water  being  slightly  higher  and  the  flood  waters  slightly  less.  There 
were  variations  in  the  periods  and  intensities  of  floods  that  bear  a 
direct  and  proper  relation  to  the  precipitation.  In  making  his 
report,  Professor  Frankenfield  points  to  the  fact  that  the  low- water 
stages  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  Nashville,  Tenn.,  are  not  fairly  com¬ 
parable  with  those  of  the  other  stations  on  account  of  permanent 
pool  stages  caused  by  dams  operated  during  the  low-water  season 
for  purposes  of  navigation.  The  first  dam  below  Pittsburg  was 
placed  in  operation  in  1885,  and  that  at  Nashville  in  1904.  The 
effect  of  these  dams  is  to  furnish  higher  low-water  stages  than  would 
result  without  them.  The  effect  upon  the  normal  low-water  stage 
at  Nashville  was  not  marked,  but  at  Pittsburg  it  was  perceptible. 
However,  in  his  conclusions  he  did  not  make  allowance  for  the 
slightly  higher  low-water  stages  at  Pittsburg  on  account  of  the  dam, 
but  when  included  with  the  other  stages  of  the  river  this  defect 
probably  is  not  apparent. 

According  to  our  line  of  reasoning,  which  we  believe  to  be  fair  and 
conservative,  it  is  shown  that  the  average  discharge  of  the  Ohio 
River  is  not  greater  as  the  result  of  deforestation  during  the  last 
nineteen  years  than  during  the  preceding  like  period,  and  that  the 
average  high  water  in  the  rivers  of  the  entire  basin,  which  includes 
the  Tennessee,  the  Cumberland,  and  the  Ohio,  is  not  higher  and  the 
low  water  is  not  lower. 

Are  real  flood  stages  more  numerous  than  formerly  t — The  next  line 
of  inquiry  will  be  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  or  not 
there  has  been  in  recent  time  an  increase  in  the  number  of  days 
that  these  rivers  were  at  -or  above  the  flood  stage,  and  in  making  this 
inquiry  exact  flood  stages  will  be  used,  not  simply  gauge  readings  less 
than  flood.  Again  I  called  on  Professor  Frankenfield  to  prepare  the 
necessary  data.  As  the  data  was  not  complete  with  regard  to  flood 
stages  for  the  first  ten  years  of  the  period  that  we  have  been  dis¬ 
cussing,  he  took  a  period  of  ten  years  less  in  length,  beginning  with 
1879,  and  as  the  result  of  his  computations  we  have  the  following 
table 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  35 


Number  of  days  in  each  year  that  the  rivers  were  at  or  above  the  flood  stage. 

[Flood  stage  given  with  name  of  station.] 


Cum¬ 

ber¬ 

land 

River, 

Nash¬ 

ville, 

Tenn. 

Tennessee  River. 

Ohio  River. 

Chatta¬ 

nooga, 

Tenn. 

Flor¬ 

ence, 

Ala. 

John¬ 

son¬ 

ville, 

Tenn. 

Pitts¬ 

burg, 

Pa. 

Cincin¬ 

nati, 

Ohio. 

Louis¬ 

ville, 

Ky. 

Evans¬ 

ville, 

Ind. 

Cairo, 

Ill. 

Flood  stage  in 

feet . 

40 

33 

16 

21 

22 

50 

28 

35 

45 

Year. 

1879 . 

3 

3 

10 

a  19 

4 

1880 . 

19 

4 

19 

a  51 

4 

4 

31 

1881 . 

4 

( b ) 

3 

2 

11 

6 

1882 . 

30 

9 

44 

80 

9 

8 

63 

56 

1883 . 

6 

4 

15 

a  73 

2 

16 

15 

o34 

21 

1884./. . 

25 

12 

42 

a  91 

3 

19 

19 

51 

40 

1885 . 

10 

20 

1 

5 

1886 . 

14 

11 

17 

31 

1 

12 

11 

19 

21 

1887 . 

11 

10 

44 

13 

11 

53 

32 

1888 . 

13 

27 

3 

5 

1889 . 

8 

12 

1890 . 

14 

5 

16 

55 

2 

14 

17 

65 

39 

1891 . 

15 

9 

35 

63 

4 

8 

6 

67 

13 

1892 . 

5 

18 

40 

1 

8 

30 

1893 . 

3 

1 

17 

44 

2 

io 

2 

28 

18 

1894 . 

3 

2 

14 

1 

1895 . 

4 

15 

1 

3 

1896 . 

6 

4 

7 

18 

6 

1897 . 

16 

9 

29 

48 

2 

8 

7 

36 

48 

1898 . 

20 

3 

15 

15 

37 

17 

1899 . 

2 

13 

26 

66 

1 

9 

5 

39 

26 

1900 . 

4 

18 

1 

1901 . 

1 

17 

42 

3 

9 

7 

12 

1902 . 

12 

6 

30 

50 

3 

4 

26 

1903 . 

1 

31 

58 

3 

8 

1 

45 

25 

1904 . 

3 

9 

4 

19 

15 

1905 . 

3 

13 

5 

4 

1906 . 

1 

22 

1 

11 

12 

1907 . 

24 

4 

22 

22 

46 

23 

1908 . 

3 

18 

3 

12 

5 

57 

11 

Total,  1879-1893 . 

140 

63 

278 

650 

19 

107 

93 

442 

281 

Total,  1894-1908 . 

40 

34 

159 

435 

34 

88 

62 

341 

177 

Grand  total. .. 

180 

97 

437 

1,085 

53 

195 

155 

783 

458 

Total. 


2,073 

1,370 


3,443 


a  Data  incomplete. 


t>  Data  missing  for  this  year. 


Days. 

Total  1879-1893 .  2,073 

Total  1894-1908 .  1,370 

Excess  of  first  period  over  second  period .  703 

Average  per  year,  1879-1893  .  138. 2 

Average  per  year,  1894-1908  .  91. 3 

Excess  per  year  first  period  over  second  period .  46.9 


From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  fourteen  years 
there  were  2,073  days  that  the  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville;  the 
Ohio  at  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Evansville,  and  Cairo;  the 
Tennessee  at  Chattanooga,  Florence,  and  Johnsonville,  were  at  the 
flood  stage — that  is,  they  were  bank  full  or  overflowing.  During  the 
last  fourteen  years  the  number  of  such  days  is  1,370,  an  excess  in 
the  first  fourteen  years  of  703  days,  or  an  average  of  46.9  days  ex¬ 
cess  per  year  in  the  first  period  over  the  second. 

Now,  I  would  guard  against  unsafe  conclusions  from  these  results. 
The  fact  is  that  abnormally  heavy  precipitation  for  several  years  in 


36  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

the  forepart  of  the  first  fourteen-year  period,  especially  that  which 
caused  the  famous  1882  flood,  places  such  a  preponderance  of  flood 
days  in  the  first  period  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  claim  that  there  has 
been  any  such  permanent  decrease  in  flood  intensity  as  is  shown  by 
this  table.  It  is  given  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  further  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  conclusions  on  which  fundamental  theories  or  policies 
are  based  should  not  be  founded  upon  short-period  data.  While  I 
am  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  no  permanent  increase  in  the 
number  of  flood  days  for  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole, 
between  the  last  fifty  years  and  the  preceding  fifty -years,  I  should 
not  rely  upon  such  short-period  data  as  is  contained  in  this  table 
to  sustain  my  belief.  But  if  these  data  of  twenty-eight  years,  which 
shows  such  a  marked  decrease  in  flood  intensity  of  the  rivers  of  the 
Ohio  Valley,  and  which  are  founded  upon  unquestionably  accurate 
data,  are  not  sufficient  evidence  for  a  scientific  man  to  claim  statistical 
proof  of  the  decrease  of  floods,  what  shall  one  say  of  the  statements 
made  by  Messrs.  Hall  and  Maxwell,  of  the  Forest  Service,  in  volume 
2,  Senate  Document  No.  676,  in  a  paper  on  “Surface  conditions  and 
stream  flow,”  which  begins  at  page  112,  as  follows: 

THE  TENDENCY  IS  TOWARD  INCREASED  FLOODS. 

On  the  Potomac  River,  for  which  measurements  are  given  for  eighteen  years,  the 
number  of  floods  during  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  19;  during  the  second  half,  26; 
while  the  number  of  days  of  flood  in  the  first  half  was  33,  and  in  the  second  half,  57. 

On  the  Monongahela  River  measurements  are  given  for  twenty-two  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  30  floods;  during  the  second  half,  52.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  55;  during  the  second  half,  100. 

On  the  Ohio  River  measurements  are  given  for  twenty-six  years.  During  the  first 
half  of  the  period  there  were  46  floods;  during  the  second  half,  59.  The  number  of 
days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  143;  during  the  second  half,  188. 

On  the  Cumberland  River  measurements  were  given  for  eighteen  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  32  floods;  during  the  second  half,  43.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  89;  during  the  second  half,  102. 

On  the  Wateree  River  measurements  have  gone  on  for  sixteen  years.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  period  the  number  of  floods  was  46;  in  the  second  half,  70.  The  number  of 
days  of  flood  in  the  first  half  of  the  period  was  147 ;  in  the  last  half,  187. 

On  the  Savannah  River  measurements  have  continued  for  eighteen  years.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  period  the  number  of  floods  was  47;  during  the  second  half,  58. 
The  number  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  period  was  116;  during  the  second  half,  170. 

On  the  Allegheny  River  measurements  are  given  for  thirty-four  years.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  period  there  were  39  floods;  during  the  second  half,  53.  The  number 
of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  92;  during  the  second  half,  131. 

On  the  Tennessee  River  measurements  have  been  taken  for  thirty-four  years.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  first  half  of  the  period  there  were  32  floods;  during  the  second  half,  33.  The 
number  of  days  of  flood  during  the  first  half  was  173;  during  the  second  half  (in  this 
case  there  was  a  falling-off),  137. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  the  authors  are,  in  my  judgment, 
faulty,  because: 

First.  The  shortness  of  the  period  of  observations  at  the  majority 
of  the  stations  discussed. 

Second.  The  arbitrary  assumption  as  flood  stages  of  certain  heights 
of  water  much  below  that  necessary  to  cause  a  flood. 

As  to  the  period  of  observations:  Those  of  us  who  are  accustomed 
to  the  computation  of  normals  or  mean  values  have  always  realized 
how  little  value  they  possess  unless  obtained  from  data  covering  a 
long  period  of  years.  This  is  true  of  temperature  normals,  which 
vary  out  little  from  year  to  year.  How  much  more  must  it  be  true 
of  precipitation  and  river-stage  data,  with  their  wide  extremes  and 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS.  37 

irregular  fluctuations?  As  a  matter  of  fact  any  average  of  river  con¬ 
ditions,  or  any  mean  annual  precipitation  determined  from  ten  or 
fifteen  years’  observations,  would  be  of  little  or  no  value  in  a  discus¬ 
sion  of  this  character,  and  when  two  of  these  short-period  normals 
are  compared  with  each  other  the  actual  errors  would  probably  be 
multiplied. 

Second,  opinions  may  differ,  of  course,  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
flood,  but  the  Weather  Bureau  (and  engineers  generally)  have  uni¬ 
formly  defined  a  river  to  be  in  flood  when  it  reached  a  stage  above 
which  damage  would  be  caused,  practically  the  bank-full  stage.  This 
being  so,  it  would  appear  reasonable  and  proper  that  this  definition 
of  the  term  should  be  accepted  and  data  discussed  accordingly.  If 
the  flood  stage  at  a  given  point  is  18  feet,  an  assumption  of  a  lower 
or  a  higher  figure  for  purposes  of  investigating  the  frequency  of  floods 
must  necessarily  be  misleading. 

I  will  now  take  up  the  rivers  in  the  order  named  in  the  quotation 
and  give  the  net  result  of  Professor  Frankenfield’s  inquiry  as  to  the 
number  of  real  floods: 

Potomac. — On  the  Potomac  River  the  number  of  floods  has  not 
increased,  but  there  were  more  days  of  a  12-foot  stage  in  the  last 
period  than  in  the  first.  The  explanation  of  this  increase  is  found  in 
the  precipitation. 

Monongahela. — On  the  Monongahela  River,  using  data  for  Lock 
No.  4,  Pennsylvania,  40  miles  above  Pittsburg,  there  were  two  more 
floods  in  the  second  period  as  compared  with  the  first,  the  figures 
being  13  and  11,  respectively.  Two  of  the  days  of  flood  occurred  in 
March,  1907,  as  a  result  of  abnormal  weather  conditions  over  the 
watershed. 

Ohio  at  Wheeling. — There  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  floods 
at  Wheeling,  but  said  increase  is  not  shown  farther  down  the  river 
than  Parkersburg.  It  (the  increase)  disappeared  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Kanawha,  as  indicated  by  the  Cincinnati  records.  The 
reason  ascribed  for  this  increase  in  flood  frequency  is  an  increase  in 
short-period  heavy  rains.  The  same  conditions  appear  to  have 
obtained  in  the  Allegheny  at  Freeport. 

Cumberland. — There  has  been  no  increase  in  flood  conditions  in  the 
Cumberland. 

Wateree. — There  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  flood  days 
on  this  river  during  the  second  period.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pre¬ 
cipitation  in  the  watershed  shows  a  like  marked  increase. 

Savannah. — The  record  for  the  Savannah  River  at  Augusta  shows 
a  marked  decrease  in  the  second  period  as  compared  with  the  first. 

Allegheny  at  Freeport. — See  Wheeling. 

Tennessee. — See  detailed  discussion  on  this  river  in  another  part  of 
this  paper. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

(1)  Any  marked  climatic  changes  that  may  have  taken  place  are 
of  wide  extent  and  not  local,  are  appreciable  only  when  measured  in 
geologic  periods,  and  evidence  is  strong  that  the  cutting  away  of  the 
forests  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  creating  or  the  augmenting  of 
droughts  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

(2)  Precipitation  controls  forestation,  but  forestation  has  little  or 
no  effect  upon  precipitation. 


38  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  FORESTS  ON  CLIMATE  AND  ON  FLOODS. 

(3)  Any  local  modification  of  temperature  and  humidity  caused  by 
the  presence  or  absence  of  forest  covering,  the  buildings  of  villages 
and  cities,  etc.,  could  not  extend  upward  more  than  a  few  hundred 
feet,  and  in  this  stratum  of  air  saturation  rarely  occurs,  even  during 
rainfall,  whereas  precipitation  is  the  result  of  conditions  that  exist  at 
such  altitudes  as  not  to  be  controlled  or  affected  by  the  small  thermal 
irregularities  of  the  surface  air. 

(4)  During  the  period  of  accurate  observations,  the  amount  of 
precipitation  has  not  increased  or  decreased  to  an  extent  worthy  of 
consideration. 

(5)  Floods  are  caused  by  excessive  precipitation,  and  the  source  of 
the  precipitation  over  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  United 
States  is  the  vapor  borne  by  the  warm  southerly  winds  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  adjacent  ocean  into  the  interior  of  the  country, 
but  little  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

(6)  Compared  with  the  total  area  of  a  given  watershed,  that  of  the 
headwaters  is  usually  small  and,  except  locally  in  mountain  streams, 
their  run-off  would  not  be  sufficient  to  cause  floods,  even  if  deforesta¬ 
tion  allowed  a  greater  and  quicker  run-off.  Granting  for  the  sake  of 
argument  that  deforestation  might  be  responsible  for  general  floods 
over  a  watershed,  it  would  be  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  them,  to 
reforest  the  lower  levels  with  their  vastly  greater  areas,  an  impossi¬ 
bility  unless  valuable  agricultural  lands  are  to  be  abandoned  as  food- 
producing  areas. 

(7)  The  run-off  of  our  rivers  is  not  materially  affected  by  any  other 
factor  than  the  precipitation. 

(8)  The  high  waters  are  not  higher,  and  the  low  waters  are  not 
lower  than  formerly.  In  fact,  there  appears  to  be  a  tendency  in  late 
years  toward  a  slightly  better  low-water  flow  in  summer. 

(9)  Floods  are  not  of  greater  frequency  and  longer  duration  than 

formerly. 


o 


38  THE  INFLT 


(3)  A r- 
tlie 
aiv1 


